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OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 


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Class 


CONSTITUTION  AND  BY-LAWS 


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ANN  ARBOR : 

COURIER   STEAM  PRINTING   HOUSE. 
1876. 


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CONSTITUTION. 


ARTICLE  I.     NAME. 

This  Association  shall  be  called  the  Ann  Arbor  Scientific 

Association. 

ART.  II.     MEMBERSHIP. 

All  persons  interested  in  any  of  the  sciences,  pure  or  ap- 
plied, shall  be  deemed  eligible  to  membership. 

ART.  III.     OFFICERS. 

The  officers  of  this  Association  shall  be  a  President,  Vice- 
President,  Secretary,  Treasurer,  and  a  Board  of  Censors. 

ART.  IV.     DUTIES  OF  OFFICERS. 
The  duties  of  the   officers  of  this  Association   shall  be  as 
laid  down  in  the  By-laws. 

ART.  V.     ADOPTION  OF  BY-LAWS. 

This  Association  shall  have  full  power  to  adopt  such  By- 
laws as  from  time  to  time  may  be  deemed  necessary,  by  a  major- 
ity vote  of  the  members  of  the  association. 


BY-LAWS. 

ARTICLE  I.     MEETINGS. 

SECTION  i.     This  Association  shall  meet  on  the  evening  of 
the  first  Saturday  of  each  month. 

,  SEC.  2.  Special  meetings  may  be  called  by  the  President 
at  his  discretion,  or  on  the  written  request  of  three  members, 
due  notice  to  be  given  as  the  President  may  direct. 


158573 


4  Constitution  and  (By=Laws. 

SEC.  3.  Quorum.  Three  members  shall  constitute  a  quo- 
rum for  business  at  any  regular  meeting. 

ART.   II.     MEMBERSHIP. 

SECTION  i.  Application  for  membership  shall  be  made  in 
writing,  accompanied  by  a  recommendation  of  at  least  one 
member  of  the  Association,  stating  his  or  her  residence  and  pro- 
fession or  occupation.  Such  application  shall  be  referred  to  the 
Board  of  Censors,  who  shall,  as  soon  as  practicable,  report 
thereon,  either  for  or  against  the  applicant. 

SEC.  2.  If  the  Board  of  Censors  report  favorably  on  any 
applicant,  a  two-thirds  vote  of  all  the  members  present  at  any 
regular  meeting  shall  be  necessary  to  election. 

SEC.  3.  If  the  Board  of  Censors  report  unfavorably,  a 
two-thirds  vote  of  all  the  members  shall  be  necessary  to  elec- 
tion. 

ART.  III.     DUTIES  OF  OFFICERS. 

SECTION  i.  Duties  of  President.  The  President  shall  pre- 
side at  the  meetings  of  the  Association,  when  present,  and  shall 
perform  such  other  duties  as  usually  devolve  on  the  presiding 
officer  in  deliberative  assemblies. 

SEC.  2.  Duties  of  Vice-President.  In  the  absence  of  the 
President,  the  Vice-President  shall  preside,  and  perform  such 
duties  as  pertain  to  the  office  of  President. 

SEC.  3.  In  the  absence  of  both  President  and  Vice-Presi- 
dent, the  Association  shall  elect  a  President /;-<?  tempore.. 

SEC.  4.  Duties  of  Secretary.  Clause  i.  The  Secretary 
shall  keep,  in  a  book  provided  for  the  purpose,  the  Constitu- 
tion, By-laws,  Rules  and  Regulations  of  this  Association,  ar- 
ranged for  easy  reference. 

Clause  2.  He  shall  also  keep,  in  a  book  provided  for  the 
purpose,  a  correct  record  of  the  business  transactions  of  this 
Association,  and  as  full  an  abstract  as  possible  of  all  papers,  re- 
ports or  discussions  on  scientific  subjects. 

Clause  3.  He  shall  conduct  the  correspondence  of  the  As- 
sociation, and  shall  keep  a  file  of  all  addresses,  essays  and  other 
papers  not  otherwise  provided  for. 


Ann  Arbor  Scientific  Association.  5 

SEC.  5.  Duties  of  Treasurer.  The  Treasurer  shall  collect 
and  safely  keep  all  money  due  the  Association.  He  shall  take 
possession  of  and  hold  all  personal  property  belonging  to  this 
Association  which  is  not  otherwise  provided  for..  He  shall  keep 
a  correct  account  of  the  same  in  a  book  provided  for  the  pur- 
pose. He  shall  pay  out  money  only  on  the  order  of  the  Secre- 
tary countersigned  by  the  President.  At  the  expiration  of  his 
term  of  office  he  shall  make  a  full  and  correct  report  to  the 
Association  of  the  transactions  of  his  office,  and  shall  deliver  up 
to  his  successor  all  property  and  papers  of  the  Association  in  his 
hands. 

If  required,  he  shall  give  bonds  for  the  faithful  performance 
of  his  duty,  in  such  sum  and  with  such  security  as  the  Associa- 
tion shall  deem  proper. 

SEC.  6.  Duties  of  the  Board  of  Censors.  The  Board  of 
Censors  shall  examine  all  applications  for  admission,  and  report 
on  the  same  to  the  Association. 

It  shall  also  be  their  duty  to  recommend  to  the  President 
for  appointment  some  member  or  members  of  the  Association  to 
read  a  paper  on  a  volunteer  subject  or  make  a  report  on  some 
selected  subject, — one  such  paper,  at  least,  to  be  read  at  each 
regular  meeting.  Provided,  however,  that  nothing  contained  in 
this  article  shall  be  so  construed  as  to  prevent  such  paper  or  re- 
port being  presented  orally,  and  a  synopsis  of  it  presented  in 
writing.  The  appointments  shall  be  announced  by  the  President 
two  meetings  in  advance. 

ART.  IV.     ELECTION  OF  OFFICERS. 

SECTION  i.  The  officers  of  this  Association  shall  be  elected 
annually  by  ballot,  and,  except  the  Board  of  Censors,  shall  serve 
one  year,  or  until  their  successors  shall  be  elected. 

SEC.  2.  There  shall  be  elected  annually  one  member  of  the 
Board  of  Censors  to  serve  three  years,  or  until  his  or  her  suc- 
cessor is  elected.  In  addition  there  shall  be  elected  at  a  meeting 
in  April,  1875,  one  member  of  said  Board  to  serve  two  years, 
and  one  for  the  term  of  one  year. 


6  Constitution  and  (By=Laws. 

ART.  V.     FEES  AND  DUES. 

The  admission  fee  to  this  Association  shall  be  two  dollars, 
and  the  annual  dues  one  dollar,  payable  annually  in  advance. 

ART.   VI.     PENALTIES. 

Any  member  in  arrears  more  than  one  year  for  dues  is 
thereby  suspended  without  action  on  the  part  of  the  Association. 
If  in  arrears  for  more  than  three  years,  his  name  shall  be  stricken 
from  the  roll  of  membership. 

ART.  VII.    DISCUSSIONS,  ETC. 

SECTION  i.  Each  member  is  requested  to  report  to  the 
Association  at  any  meeting  any  fact  or  discovery  of  interest  in 
the  science  in  which  he  is  most  interested  ;  and  to  present  for 
the  examination  of  the  Association  any  specimen,  instrument  or 
other  object  of  special  interest  in  such  science. 

SEC.  2.  All  papers  presented  to  the  Association  shall  be  its 
property,  to  dispose  of  as  it  deems  proper. 

ART.   VIII.     AMENDMENTS. 

Any  proposed  amendment  to  these  By-Laws  shall  be  offered 
in  writing  one  month  previous  to  action  being  taken  thereon. 
Two-thirds  of  the  members  present  at  such  regular  meeting  shall 
constitute  a  majority  to  decide  on  such  amendment. 

Any  one  or  more  of  these  By-Laws  may  be  temporarily  sus- 
pended by  a  majority  of  the  members  present. 


AMENDMENTS. 


ART.    IX.     HONORARY   AND   CORRESPONDING 
MEMBERS. 

SECTION  i.  Any  person  prominent  in  science  may  be 
elected  an  Honorary  Member  by  a  unanimous  vote  at  any  regu- 
lar meeting. 

Any  person  in  the  active  pursuit  of  science  may  be  elected 
a  Corresponding  Member  by  a  two-thirds  vote  of  all  members 
present  at  any  regular  meeting. 


Ann  Arbor  Scientific  Association.  7 

Resident  members  on  removal  from  Ann  Arbor  or  vicinity 
become  Corresponding  Members  without  action  of  the  Associa- 
tion. 

SEC.  2.  '  No  dues  or  other  fees  are  required  from  Honorary 
or  Corresponding  Members. 

Any  communication  from  Corresponding  Members  will  be 
referred  to  the  Board  of  Censors,  who  shall  report  on  it  favora- 
bly before  it  is  presented  to  the  Association. 

ART.  X.     ORDER  OF  BUSINESS. 

1.  ^  Calling  to  Order. 

2.  Reading  Minutes  of  last  Meeting. 

3.  Applications  for  Membership  received  and  referred. 

4.  Unfinished  Business. 

5.  New  Business. 

6.  Reports  of  Officers  and  Committees. 

7.  Balloting  for  Membership. 

8.  Papers  and  Discussions. 

9.  Reports  and  Display  of  Specimens  and  Apparatus. 
10.  Adjournment. 


WITH   THE    DATE    OB1   THEIR    ELECTION. 


Miss  E.  C.  Allmendinger--.  -May  1,  1875. 

President  J.  B.  Angell,  LL.  D May  1,  1875. 

Charles  E.  Beecher _  -'June  5,  1875. 

Prof.  W.  W.  Beman June  5,  1875. 

Henry  D.  Bennett March  4,  187<>. 

W.  R.  Birdsall --Nov.  6,  1875. 

Rev.  C.  H.  Brigham— „ - June  5,  1875. 

Rev.  F.  T.  Brown,  D.  D Nov.  6,  1875. 

Miss  Lucy  A.  Chittenden -Nov.  6,  1875. 

Prof.  J.  A.  Church--  —May  1,  1875. 

Prof.  H.N.  Chute April  17,  1875. 

Miss  Mary  H.  Clark* --April  17,  1875. 

Rev.  Benj.  F.  Cocker,  D.  D.,  LL.  D -.-April  17,  1875. 

R.  W.  Corwin April  17,  1875. 

Miss  Kate  Crane,  Ph.  C April  17,  1875. 

Mrs.  Bailie  A.  Crane __Nov.  6,  1875. 

Prof.  J.  B.  Davis,  C.  E April  17,  1875. 

Miss  Mary  C.  Douglas June  5,  1875. 

Prof.  Silas  H.  Douglas,  M.  D May  1,  1875. 

Samuel  T.  Douglas,  Ph.  C May  1,  1875. 

Prof.  E.  S.  Dunster,  M.  D Nov.  6,  1875. 

Miss  A.  E.  P.  Eastman --May  1,  1875. 

Ottmar  Eberbach, --April  17,  1875. 

Mrs.  B.  C.  Farrand —Oct.  2,  1875. 

Prof.  C.  L.  Ford,  M.  D -  --Oct.  2,  1875. 

Mrs.  M.  E.Foster ..-June  5,  1875. 

C.  George,  M.  D --May  1,  1875. 

Prof.  C.  E.  Greene,  C.  E May  1,  1875. 

G.  G.  GrofT --April  17,  1875. 

Israel  Hall Aug.  7,  1875. 

Chas.  N.  B.  Hall Oct.  2,  1875. 


*  Deceased. 


Ann  Arbor  Scientific  Association.  g 

George  Haller May  1,  1875. 

W.  D.  Harriman May  1,  1875. 

Prof.  M.  W.  Harrington April  10,  1875. 

D.  C.  Hauxhurst,  D.  D.  S ,.-;,-  -Nov.  6,  1875. 

W.  J.  Herdman,  M.  D Nov.  6,  1875. 

W.  H.  Jackson,  D.  D.  S April  10,  1875. 

O.  C.  Johnson 1 April  10,  1875. 

C.  J.  Kintner May  1,  1875. 

Prof.  J.  W.  Langley Oct.  2,  1875. 

L.  S.  Lerch May  1,  1875. 

Miss  E.  C.  Merriam June  5,  1875. 

Prof.  John  W.  Morgan,  M.  D Nov.  6,  1875. 

Prof.  B.  E.  Nichols Nov.  6,  1875. 

Prof.  W.  S.  Perry Nov.  6,  1875. 

Prof.  W.  H.  Pettee -—Oct.  2,  1875. 

Prof.  A.  B.  Prescott,  M.  D April  10,  1875. 

Miss  Louisa  M.  Reed June  5,  1875. 

Henry  W.  Rogers Aug.  7,  1875. 

Chas.  Rominger,  M.  D Nov.  6,  1875. 

Prof.  P.  B.  Rose,  M.  D April  10,  1875. 

Miss  C.  A.  Sager June  5,  1875. 

J.  Austin  Scott April  1,  1875. 

Ezra  C.  Seaman June  5,  1875. 

Wm.  H.  Smith Feb.  5,  1876. 

Volney  M.  Spalding Nov.  6,  1875. 

Prof.  J.  B.  Steere,  Ph.  D Feb.  5,  1S76. 

J.  Taft,  D.  D.  S Oct.  2,  1875. 

Prof.  A.  Ten  Brook June  5,  1875. 

Charles  Tripp Jan.  8,  1876. 

V.  C.  Vaughan April  10,  1875. 

Miss  Kate  Watson Aug.  7,1875. 

A.  B.  Wood--  Jan.  8,  1876. 

P.  D.  Woodruff- May  1,  1875. 


CORRESPONDING  MEMBERS. 


Prof.  G.  B.  Merriman Albion,  Mich. 

G.  W.  Stone ...-Albion,  Mich. 


OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY 

OF 


dcniifu 


SATURDAY  EVENING,  March  20,  1875. 

Four  persons  met  informally  in  Prof.  Harrington's  room,  at 
the  University,  for  the  purpose  of  consultation  with  regard  to 
the  practicability  of  forming  a  scientific  association  or  society. 

After  freely  exchanging  views  with  each  other  in  regard  to 
the  desirability  of  such  a  society  and  the  possibility  of  a  failure, 
it  was  moved  and  carried  that  a  committee  of  three,  consisting 
of  Prof.  M.  W.  Harrington,  Drs.  W.  H.  Jackson  and  P.  B. 
Rose,  be  appointed  to  confer  with  such  persons  as  it  might  be 
thought  were  interested  in  such  a  society,  and  to  report  at  a  fu- 
ture meeting;  also  to  report  a  plan  of  organization  of  such 
society  if  deemed  practicable. 

On  motion  the  meeting  adjourned  to  meet  at  the  call  of 
the  committee. 


SATURDAY  EVENING,  April  10,  1875. 

A  meeting  was  called  by  order  of  the  committee  appointed 
at  the  meeting  of  March  2oth.  Present,  seven  persons. 

The  meeting  was  called  to  order  by  Prof.  Harrington,  chair- 
man of  the  committee. 

The  committee  reported  as  follows:  That,  from  consulta- 
tion with  a  number  of  persons,  it  was  thought  not  only  practica- 
ble but  desirable  that  a  Scientific  Society  should  be  formed  in 


Ann  Arbor  Scientific  Association. 

Ann  Arbor.  The  committee  also  reported  a  plan  of  organiza- 
tion, by  submitting  a  draft  of  a  Constitution  and  By-Laws. 

The  report  of  the  committee  was  accepted,  and  on  motion 
the  Constitution  and  By-Laws  were  taken  up  article  by  article 
and  adopted,  as  follows :  (See  Constitution  and  By-Laws.) 

Owing  to  the  small  number  present,  it  was  thought  best  to 
adjourn  for  one  week,  before  completing  the  organization  and 
the  election  of  officers.  It  was  therefore  moved  and  supported 
that  when  the  Association  adjourns,  it  be  for  one  week ;  and  that 
a  committee  of  two  be  appointed  by  the  chair,  on  the  nomina- 
tion of  officers. 

The  motions  were  carried. 

The  chair  then  appointed  P.  B.  Rose  and  W.  H.  Jackson 
such  committee,  after  which  the  meeting  adjourned  to  meet  in 
one  week. 


SATURDAY  EVENING,  April  17,  1875. 

The  meeting  was  called  to  order,  'eleven  persons  present. 
The   business  in  order  was  the   report  of  the  Committee  on 
Nominations.     The  chairman,  P.  B.  Rose,   reported  as  follows : 

President — Dr.  B.  F.  Cocker. 
Vice- President— Dr.  A.  B.  Prescott. 
Secretary— Prof.  Merriman. 
Treasurer — Dr.  Jackson. 

Board  of  Censors— Three  years,  Prof.  M.'W.  Harrington;  for  two  years, 
Miss  Mary  H.  Clark ;  for  one  year,  Prof.  H.  N.  Chute. 

On  motion  the  report  was  accepted  and  the  committee  dis- 
charged. 

The  Association  then  proceeded  with  the  election  of  offi- 
cers by  ballot,  with  the  following  result,  Prof.  Merriman  having 
resigned  the  nomination  of  Secretary  : 

President— Dr.  B.  F.  Cocker. 
Vice-Prevident—Dr.  A.  B.  Prescott. 
Secretary— Dr.  P.  B.  Rose. 
Trcfiftiircr—Dr.  W.  H.  Jackson. 

Board  of  Censors— Three  years,  Prof.  Harrington  ;  two  years,  Miss  Clark  ; 
one  year,  Prof.  Chute. 


12  ^Proceedings  of  the 

The  President  elect  was  then  conducted  to  the  chair,  and 
addressed  the  Association  with  a  few  well-timed  remarks,  as 
follows : 

That  he  appreciated  the  honor  of  election.  Though  de- 
voted especially  to  metaphysical  studies,  he  was  in  fullest  sympa- 
thy with  inductive  science.  The  distinct  observation  and  clear 
statement  of  a  new  fact  in  nature  was  a  contribution  to  the 
understanding  of  the  universe.  Scientific  truth  is  preeminently 
vitalizing  to  the  mind.  The  best  intellectual  culture  is  scientific 
culture.  He  hoped  they  would  not  be  content  with  mere  organi- 
zation. We  are  associated  for  work,  for  research.  Let  each  feel 
the  responsibility  for  success.  Let  each  do  his  or  her  part,  and 
let  us  not  leave  to  this  or  the  other  person  what  we  ought  to  do 
ourselves.  Every  member  must  be  an  active  member.  .  The 
failure  of  a  Scientific  Association  in  this  university  town,  would 
be  a  disgrace,  and  he  should  be  sorry  to  be  known  as  a  member 
of  the  failing  concern. 

No  further  business  appearing,  the  Association  adjourned. 

P.  B.  ROSE,  Secretary. 


MAY  1st,  1875. 

The  Association  met  and  was  called  to  order  at  7}^  P.  M., 
Dr.  Cocker,  President,  in  the  chair. 

The  minutes  of  the  previous  meeting  were  read  and  ap- 
proved. 

The  following  applications  for  membership  were  received 
and  referred  to  the  Board  of  Censors :  President  J.  B.  Angell, 
Prof.  C.  E.  Greene,  Prof.  S.  H.  Douglas,  Miss  Kate  Crane,  Miss 
E.  C.  Allmendinger,  Dr.  A.  Sager,  Prof.  J.  A.  Church,  Miss  A. 
E.  P.  Eastman,  Geo.  Haller,  L.  S.  Lerch,  W.  D.  Harriman,  P. 
D.  Woodruff,  C.  J.  Kintner,  S.  T.  Douglas,  and  Dr.  C.  George. 

The  Board  of  Censors  having  reported  favorably  on  the 
above  applications  for  membership,  they  were  duly  balloted  for 
and  declared  unanimously  elected. 


Ann  Arbor  Scientific  Association.  13 

The  Secretary  presented  a  bill  for  books  and  circulars  for 
his  office  amounting  to  $9.05,  which  was  referred  to  the  Board 
of  Censors. 

Prof.  Harrington  was  here  introduced,  and  read  a  paper  on 
the  "  Elevation  of  the  Earth's  Crust  in  Arctic  Regions."  (See 
Appendix  A.) 

A  discussion  of  the  facts  presented  and  the  results  following 
them  was  participated  in  by  the  President,  Dr.  Cocker,  and  by 
Profs.  Church,  Davis,  Greene,  and  Chute. 

The  Association  then  adjourned  to  the  lecture-room  of  the 
Medical  building,  where  Prof.  Douglas  exhibited  the  working  of 
a  new  Magneto-Electric  machine,  known  as  the  "  Ladd  Ma- 
chine," the  only  one  of  the  size  in  this  country. 

After  the  conclusion  of  the  experiment,  the  Association  ad- 
journed. 

P.  B.  ROSE,  Secretary. 


JUNE  STH,  1875. 

The  Association  met  and  was  called  to  order  at  7^  p.  M., 
Dr.  Cocker,  President,  in  the  chair. 

The  following  applications  for  membership  were  received  : 
Profs.  W.  W.  Beman  and  C.  N.  Jones,  Miss  L.  M.  Reed,  Miss 
E.  C.  Merriam,  Miss  C.  A.  Sager,  Dr.  H.  S.  Cheever,  Rev.  C. 
H.  Brigham,  Profs.  M.  C.  Tyler  and  A.  Ten  Brook,  E.  C.  Sea- 
man, Oscar  Tucker,  Miss  Mary  E.  Douglas,  Bryant  W&lker, 
Charles  E.  Beecher,  Mrs.  Mary  E.  Foster,  and  William  P  Dopp. 

The  same  were  referred  to  the  Board  of  Censors  who  re- 
ported favorably,  and  on  ballot  they  were  declared  legally  elected. 

The  Board  of  Censors  reported  favorably  on  the  bill  of  P. 
B.  Rose,  referred  to  them  at  the  last  meeting,  and  recommended 
its  allowance  and  payment. 


j^  ^Proceedings  of  the 

The  report  was  accepted,  and  on  motion  a  warrant  was  or- 
dered drawn  on  the  Treasurer  for  the  amount  of  $9.05. 

On  motion  a  warrant  was  ordered  drawn  on  the  Treasurer 
for  $2.50  for  the  bill  of  Fiske  &  Douglas. 

It  was  then  moved  and  supported  that  hereafter  and  until 
further  notice,  the  time  of  meeting  of  the  Association  be  changed 
to  8  P.  M.  Carried. 

Prof.  Harrington,  in  behalf  of  Bryant  Walker  and  Charles 
E.  Beecher,  presented  a  paper  comprising  a  list  of  the  land  and 
fresh-water  shells  found  within  a  circuit  of  four  miles  about  Ann 
Arbor,  and  collected  by  them.  (See  Appendix  B.) 

On  motion,  Messrs.  Walker  and  Beecher  were  made  a  com- 
mittee to  make  any  additions  and  changes  in  the  list  which  future 
observations  should  make  necessary. 

On  motion,  Miss  Mary  H.  Clark  and  Miss  E.  C.  Allmen- 
dinger  were  made  a  committee  to  make  out  a  list  of  plants  found 
growing  within  a  radius  of  four  miles  of  Ann  Arbor. 

Mr.  R.  W.  Corwin  was  appointed  a  committee  to  make  a  list 
of  all  vertebrates,  except  fishes,  found  within  the  same  radius. 

Dr.  W.  H.  Jackson  was  now  introduced,  and  read  a  very 
interesting  paper  on  "Hypertrophic  Cement,"  illustrated  by 
microscopic  specimens  and  diagrams.  He  spoke  first  of  the 
causes  of  hypertrophy  in  general,  and  then  of  hypertrophic  ce- 
ment under  two  heads : 

First.  The  primary  causes,— such  as  inflammation  of  the 
periosteum,  death  of  the  pulp,  abnormal  secretions  of  the  mouth 
producing  irritation  of  the  gums  or  of  the  sentient  terminal 
nerves  in  the  dentine,  irritation  of  the  periosteum-dentine  from 
undue  pressure. 

Second.  He  spoke  of  its  histological  structure  and  form 
as  cap-shaped,  laminated,  modulated  and  penetrating. 

There  is  no  time  of  life  between  the  formation  of  the  tem- 
porary teeth  and  that  of  old  age  that  is  exempt  from  this  hyper- 


Ann  Arbor  Scientific  Association.  15 

trophy.  He  referred  to  the  fact  that  most  histologists  figure  the 
cement  as  containing  bone-corpuscles ;  and  then  stated  that, 
from  frequent  and  repeated  observation  ot  various  specimens,  he 
had  concluded  that  true  cement  is  nearly,  if  not  entirely,  desti- 
tute of  what  are  called  bone-corpuscles,  and  that  the  so-called 
bone-corpuscles  found  in  cement  are  but  the  corpuscles  which 
were  developed  when  the  cement-organ  was  in  a  state  favorable 
to  hypertrophy. 

In  hypertrophic  cement,  it  is  true,  these  corpuscles  are  very 
numerous,  having  broad,  flattened  bases,  resting  upon  the  exter- 
nal surfaces  of  the  lamina,  with  canaliculi  extending  towards  the 
periphery  of  the  tooth.  They  vary  much  in  size,  and  sometimes 
several  are  joined  together.  He  considered  them  simply  masses 
of  periosteal  tissue  which  have  become  enveloped  within  the 
rapidly  growing  cement. 

There  are  occasional  specimens  when  the  hypertrophy  is  ho- 
mogeneous. The  corpuscles  in  such  cases  somewhat  resemble  bone- 
corpuscles.  In  these  cases  there  are  also  present  distinct  tubuli, 
running  parallel  to  each  other  with  undulating  or  tortuous  courses, 
somewhat  resembling  the  dental  tubules,  but  larger.  These  are 
not  found  in  true  cement.  Again,  that  which  is  called  the  ce- 
ment or  bone-corpuscle  is  not  necessary  to  the  physiological 
structure  of  true  cement,  and,  when  found,  is  the  result  of  a 
pathological  condition  of  the  part  at  the  time  of  its  formation  ; 
and,  therefore,  the  presence  of  hypertrophic  cement  shows  a 
pathological  condition  of  the  part,  although  the  disturbance  may 
not  have  been  material. 

A  discussion  of  the  facts  set  forth  was  engaged  in  by  Profs. 
Prescott,  Harrington,  and  Dr.  Jackson.  Prof.  Harrington  re- 
marked that  the  shape  of  the  corpuscles  as  described  by  Dr. 
Jackson  was  much  like  many  seen  in  the  bones  of  the  ox  and 
horse.  He  also  said  that  many  authors  state  that  the  bone-cor- 
puscle is  a  hollow,  hard  structure  which  will  be  left  behind  after 


id  (Proceedings  of  the 

the  bone  has  been  dissolved  away,  and  asked  the  essayist  if  he 
hid  observed  such  a  fact  in  the  cement.  Dr.  Jackson  replied 
that  he  had  never  tried  the  experiment. 

By  a  vote  of  the  Association,  Mr.  L.  V.  Fletcher  was  re- 
quested to  read  a  paper  on  Indian  Mounds  of  Genesee  county, 
Michigan.  (See  Appendix  C.) 

A  discussion  of  the  paper  here  followed. 

On  motion,  Mr.  Fletcher  was  requested  to  furnish  the  Asso- 
ciation with  a  copy  of  his  paper.  (Many  of  the  specimens 
described  by  Mr.  Fletcher  are  deposited  in  the  Museum  of  the 
University.) 

Prof.  Merriman  called  the  attention  of  the  Association  to  the 
report  of  the  committee  appointed  by  the  Academy  of  Sciences 
of  St.  Petersburg  to  examine  the  merits  of  a  new  method  of  pro- 
curing the  electric  light.  The  committee,  through  its  chairman, 
Mr.  Wilde,  reported  so  favorably  that  the  Academy  had  awarded 
a  medal  to  the  inventor.  The  novel  feature  of  the  method  con- 
sists in  hermetically  inclosing  a  slender  rod  of  carbon  in  a  glass 
cylinder  from  which  oxygen  is  excluded,  thus  rendering  combus- 
tion impossible.  The  carbon  is  thus  made  part  of  the  electric 
circuit,  and  by  its  resistance  becomes  intensely  incandescent, 
giving  out  a  regular,  uniform  light  without  waste  of  carbon.  The 
flicker  and  irregularity  of  the  light,  as  commonly  produced  be- 
tween two  carbon  points  in  air,  which  constitute  a  great  objection 
to  its  use,  are  thus  obviated. 

Prof.  Merriman  was  announced  to  read  a  paper  on  "  Par- 
helia" at  the  August  meeting. 

On  motion,  the  Association  adjourned. 

P.  B.  ROSE,  Secretary. 


Ann  Arbor  Scientific  Association. 


JULY  3D,  1875. 

The  Association  was  called  to  order  at  8  P.  M.,  Dr.  A.  B. 
Prescott,  Vice-President,  in  the  chair. 

The  minutes  of  the  previous  meeting  were  read  and  ap- 
proved. 

The  death  of  Miss  Mary  H.  Clark,  a  member  of  the  Board 
of  Censors  of  this  Association,  was  announced  by  the  chair  with 
appropriate  remarks. 

On  motion  of  Prof.  Harrington  a  committee  of  three  were 
appointed  by  the  chair  to  draft  appropriate  resolutions. 

Profs.  Harrington,  Merriman,  and  Rose  were  appointed  such 
committee,  who  reported  the  following,  which  were  adopted  : 

IN  MEMORIAM. 

At  a  meeting  of  the  Ann  Arbor  Scientific  Association,  held  Saturday 
evening,  July  3d,  the  following  resolutions  were  adopted: 

WHEREAS,  By  the  interposition  of  Providence,  one  of  our  number  has 
been  removed  by  death  from  among  us,  Miss  MARY  H.  CLARK  ;  therefore 

Resolved,  That  in  her  decease  we  have  lost  a  valued  member,  one  who 
took  much  interest  in  the  founding  of  this  Association,  and  who,  by  her 
scientific  acquirements,  her  advice,  and  her  hearty  support,  has  contributed 
to  its  success. 

Resolved,  That  we  recognize  in  her  removal  a  great  loss  to  society,  of 
which  she  was  an  esteemed  member;  to  science,  in  which  she  always  pre- 
served a  lively  and  intense  interest;  to  the  poor,  who  had  learned  to  love  her 
for  her  unremitting  efforts  in  their  behalf;  and  to  the  cause  of  education,  in 
the  pursuit  of  which  she  has  spent  forty  years  of  unremitted  labor. 

Resolved,  That  we  extend  our  heartfelt  sympathy  to  her  family  and 

friends. 

M.  W.  HARRINGTON, 

G.  B.  MERRIMAN, 
P.  B.  ROSE. 

On  motion,  the  Secretary  was  instructed  to  have  a  sufficient 
number  of  copies  printed,  and  to  present  the  same  to  the  friends 

of  the  deceased. 
2 


(Proceedings  of  the 


On  motion,  Prof.  Harrington  was  appointed  a  committee  of 
one  to  procure  the  blanks  required  by  the  Association. 

The  death  of  Miss  Clark  having  caused  a  vacancy  in  the 
Board  of  Censors,  on  motion  the  Association  proceeded  to  an 
election  to  fill  such  vacancy,  which  resulted  in  the  election  of 
Miss  C.  A.  Sager  for  the  unexpired  balance  of  the  two  years. 

The  Secretary  presented  the  bill  of  R.  A.  Beal  for  printing, 
amounting  to  $1.50,  and  also  one  from  J.  Moore  for  envelopes, 
amounting  to  $1.00.  The  bills  were  referred  to  the  Board  of 
Censors,  who  reported  favorably  on  them,  and  recommended 
their  allowance  and  payment. 

The  report  was  received,  and  on  motion  adopted,  and  a 
warrant  ordered  drawn  for  the  amounts. 

The  order  of  papers  and  discussions  having  been  reached, 
Prof.  Prescott  read  a  paper  on  "  The  Aromatic  Group  of  Organic 
Compounds;  Their  Significance  in  the  Chemistry  of  Plants." 
(See  Appendix  D.) 

A  discussion  of  the  facts  presented  by  the  paper  followed. 

Dr.  Prescott  reported  to  the  Association  the  results  of  the 
analysis  of  four  samples  of  Ann  Arbor  milk,  as  follows : 


MILKMAN. 

Specific  grav. 

Total  solids. 

Solids  not  fat. 

Fat. 

1     Van  Giessen    _    

1.0259 

13.24 

10.000 

3.24 

2     Ticknor 

1.0800 

13.71 

10.327 

3.38 

3     Green         _           _  _       _ 

1.0280 

11.89 

10.120 

1.77 

4     Van  Giessen 

1.0290 

13.41 

10.109 

3.30 

Signed, 


N.  G.  O.  COAD. 


MAY,  1875. 

This  table  shows  that  while  each  contained  the  proper 
amount  of  solids  not  fat,  sample  No.  3  was  deficient  in  fat  or 
cream,  leaving  us  to  conclude  that  it  was  largely  made  up  of 
skimmed  milk. 

On  motion,  the  Association  adjourned. 

P.  B.  ROSE,  Secretary. 


Ann  Arbor  Scientific  Association.  ig 


AUGUST  ?TH,  1875. 

The  Association  met  at  the  usual  time  and  place,  Dr.  Pres- 
cott,  Vice-President,  in  the  chair. 

The  minutes  of  the  preceding  meeting  were  read  and  ap- 
proved. 

The  names  of  the  following  persons  were  received  for  mem- 
bership and  referred  to  the  Board  of  Censors :  Israel  Hall,  Henry 
W.  Rogers,  Miss  Kate  Hale,  Mrs.  E.  D.  Kinne,  Miss  Kate 
Watson. 

Prof.  Merriman  was  here  introduced,  and  read  a  paper  on 
"  Halos  and  Parhelia"  of  which  the  abstract  follows  : 

The  most  usual  forms  presented  by  these  phenomena  are  the 
following : 

1.  A  colored  circle  or  halo  around  the  sun  at  a  distance 
from  it  of  22°,  and  2°  to  3°  in  width,  quite  similar  to  a  rainbow 
with  the  order  of  the  colors  reversed. 

2.  A  second  and  similar  circle  about  the  first,  at  a  distance 
of  46°  from  the  sun. 

3.  An  incomplete  circle  or  inverted  arc,  also  colored,  tan- 
gent to  the  second  halo  at  its  highest  point. 

4.  Two  arcs  tangent  to  the  lower  half  of  the  second  halo, 
and  equally  distant  from  its  lowest  point. 

5.  Short  inverted  arcs  at  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  inner 
halo. 

6.  A  white  band  of  light  passing  through  the  sun,  parallel 
to  the  horizon,  and  not  unfrequently  extending  quite  around  it, 

7.  Luminous  spots,  called  parhelia,  or,  more  commonly, 
"mock  suns,"  where  the  horizontal  band  crosses  the  first  halo, 
and  sometimes,  also,  at  other  points  on  this  band. 

The  same  phenomena,  but  less  brilliant,  appear  also  about 
the  moon. 


20  (Proceedings  of  the 

The  conditions  necessary  for  these  phenomena  are  :  ist, 
the  presence  of  minute  uniform  crystals  of  frozen  vapor  in  the 
higher  strata  of  the  air,  forming  a  light  cirrus  cloud  over  the 
sun  >  and  2d,  comparative  stillness  of  the  atmosphere,  that  the 
positions  of  the  crystals  in  falling  may  remain  nearly  uni- 
form , 

The  most  simple  form  of  ice  crystals  is  that  of  a  hexag- 
onal prism  terminated  by  plane  faces  perpendicular  to  the  sides. 
Suppose  an  immense  number  of  such  crystals,  in  every  possible 
position,  to  be  slowly  falling  in  the  air.  Many  of  them  will 
be  in  or  near  the  position  of  minimum  deviation  relatively  to  the 
direction  of  the  sun,  and,  unlike  the  others,  will  conspire  to  re- 
fract the  sunlight  in  the  same  direction ;  as  a  prism,  when  near 
the  position  of  minimum  deviation,  can  be  rotated  through  a 
considerable  angle  without  sensibly  affecting  the  direction  of  the 
refracted  ray.  It  is  the  combined  action  of  the  crystals  in  this 
position  which  produces  the  visible  result.  All  those  prisms, 
symmetrically  situated  with  respect  to  the  line  through  the  eye 
and  sun,  and  at  a  proper  angular  distance  from  it,  will  conspire 
to  send  the  light  to  the  eye,  and  the  appearance  produced  is 
symmetrical  with  respect  to  that  line,  namely,  colored  circles 
with  the  sun  as  the  center,  the  red  (refracted  least)  marking  the 
inner  border,  and  the  other  colors  following  in  the  order  of  the 
spectrum.  As  the  crystals  within  the  circle  can  transmit  to  the 
eye  no  light  at  all,  while  those  without  and  not  in  the  position  of 
least  deviation  may  transmit  some,  the  inner  border  is  sharp  and 
distinct,  but  the  outer  border  fades  into  a  feeble  white. 

The  inclination  of  the  lateral  faces  of  a  hexagonal  prism  is 
60°  and  120°;  that  of  the  ends  with  the  sides  is  90°.  Taking 
the  refractive  index  of  ice  as  1.31,  it  is  easily  shown  that  the 
mean  deviation  of  light  by  passing  through  the  angle  of  60°  is 
about  22°,  and  by  passing  through  the  angle  of  90°  is  46°,  thus 
explaining  the  formation  of  the  primary  and  secondary  halos 
which  are  found  to  be  respectively  at  those  distances  from  the 
sun.  The  angle  of  120°  is  too  great  for  light  to  be  transmitted. 

The  two  halos  described  depend  for  their  formation  on 
the  ice  crystals  having  their  axes  at  all  angles.  But  as  from 


Ann  Arbor  Scientific  Association.  21 

their  shape  there  would  likely  be  an  excess  of  crystals  having 
their  axes  vertical  or  horizontal,  distinct  phenomena  depending 
on  these  positions  appear.  If  the  sun  is  not  too  far  above  the 
horizon,  the  vertical  prisms  will  throw  an  excess  of  light  to  the 
right  and  left,  giving  rise  to  lateral  mock  suns ;  the  horizontal 
prisms  will,  in  like  manner,  produce  a  mock  sun  above,  and,  if 
the  sun's  altitude  is  sufficient,  also  one  below  the  real  sun.  These 
primary  parhelia,  when  brilliant,  may  be  the  origin  of  secondary 
ones  formed  in  the  same  manner. 

Another  effect  of  those  crystals  whose  axes  are  vertical,  pro- 
duced by  the  light  refracted  through  the  terminal  edges  of  90°, 
is  the  inverted  arc  which  touches  the  second  halo  at  its  upper 
point,  and  having  its  center  at  the  zenith.  The  brightness  which 
this  arc  frequently  exhibits,  and  the  order  of  its  colors — violet 
within  and  red  without,  the  red  still  being  nearest  the  sun — give 
it  a  very  close  resemblance  to  an  inverted  rainbow  high  up  in  the 
sky.  As  this  circumzenithal  arc  and  the  parhelia  on  the  right 
and  left  of  the  sun  are  both  due  to  the  same  position  of  the  pris- 
matic crystals,  whenever  one  is  visible  the  others  generally  are 
also,  and  this  often  in  the  absence  of  both  the  primary  and  sec- 
ondary halos. 

If  the  crystals  assume  a  horizontal  position,  the  same  angles 
(90°)  in  like  manner  produce  the  two  tangent  arcs  on  the  lower 
part  of  the  secondary  halo. 

The  preceding  are  all  phenomena  of  refraction.  But  the 
light  is  also  reflected  from  the  surfaces  of  the  prisms,  as  from  a 
mirror.  The  vertical  surfaces  thus  give  rise  to  the  white  hori- 
zontal band  passing  through  the  sun,  and,  if  many  surfaces  are 
oscillating  about  a  horizontal  position,  they  will  occasion  a  like 
vertical  band  through  the  sun,  just  as  the  image  of  the  sun  or 
moon  reflected  from  water  not  perfectly  at  rest  is  lengthened 
out  into  a  vertical  column  of  light. 

Halos  must  be  distinguished  from  coronae,  which  are  much 
smaller,  appearing  in  fact  quite  close  to  the  sun  or  moon,  and 
having  their  colors  in  reverse  order — the  violet  next  the  sun. 
The  coronae  are  due  to  the  diffraction  and  interference  of  light 


22  (Proceedings  of  the 

caused  by  the  small  globules  of  water  in  the  air.  As  the  diminu- 
tion in  size  of  the  coronae  indicates  an  increase  in  size  of  the 
watery  spheres  which  cause  them,  this  may  be  regarded  as  a 
token  of  approaching  rain,  which  falls  when  the  particles  are  no 
longer  able  on  account  of  their  size  to  float  in  the  air.  Halos 
are  a  less  certain  indication  of  a  storm,  though  if  their  bright- 
ness is  considerably  obscured,  they  are  not  unfrequently  followed 
by  rain  or  snow. 

The  foregoing  explanation  of  the  cause  of  halos  receives 
confirmation  from  the  polariscope,  which  shows  the  light  to  be 
partially  polarized  in  a  plane  tangent  to  the  circle. 

SYNOPSIS. 
Positions  of  the  Prismatic  Crystals. 

I.     Prisms  with  axes  at  all  angles. 
II.     Prisms  with  axes  vertical. 
III.     Prisms  with  axes  horizontal. 
I. 

1.  Primary  halo  by  angles  of  60°. 

2.  Secondary  halo  by  angles  of  90°. 

II. 

1.  Lateral  parhelia  (both    primary   and  secondary)  by 
angles  of  60°. 

2.  Circumzenithal  arc  by  angles  of  90°. 

III. 

1.  Tangent  arcs  and  parhelia  at  upper  and  lower  points 
of  first  halo,  by  angles  of  60°. 

2.  Tangent  arcs  on  the  right  and  left  of  the  lower  half 
of  second  halo,  by  angles  of  90°. 

II.,    III. 

Horizontal  white  band  by  reflection  from  vertical  surfaces. 

Vertical  white  band  by  reflection  from  horizonal  surfaces. 

The  paper  was  illustrated  by  black  board  drawings  and  pre- 
parations on  glass.  It  was  followed  by  a  discussion  engaged  in 
by  E.  C.  Seaman,  Dr.  Sager  and  Prof.  Ten  Brook. 


Ann  Arbor  Scientific  Association.  25 

Mr.  J.  D.  Williams,  of  the  Washtenaw  County  Pioneer  Society, 
was  introduced,  and  exhibited  a  supposed  Indian  relic  in  the 
form  of  a  pipe-head  with  Egyptian  peculiarities  in  features  and 
arrangement  of  the  hair.  It  was  found  about  ten  years  ago  on 
the  surface  of  the  ground  at  Boyden's  Plains,  eight  miles  from 
the  city  of  Ann  Arbor. 

Dr.  A.  Sager  gave  the  results  of  some  "  Observations  of  the 
Development  of  some  Dipterous  Larvce"  as  drawn  from  his  note- 
book. On  August  19,  he  found  a  group  of  some  15  or  20  jelly- 
like  ovoid  bodies  as  large  as  a  pea,  attached  to  each  other  by  a 
common  cord,  on  a  small  aquatic  plant,  which,  when  micro- 
scopically examined,  were  found  to  be  composed  of  microscopic 
ova,  invested  with  a  glairy  mucus,  each  mass  containing  from 
2,000  to  3,000  eggs,  curiously  arranged  in  rows,  the  ova  of  each 
row  being  differently  disposed.  The  enclosed  embryos  were 
distinctly  visible  through  the  transparent  membranes.  The  em- 
bryos were  so  far  developed  as  to  exhibit  the  abdominal  segments 
distinctly.  Nearly  in  the  center  of  the  body  was  seen  a  dark, 
anteriorly  bifurcate  mass,  which  was  composed  of  minute  spheri- 
cal granules  or  probably  cells,  but  not  very  distinct.  There 
were  twelve  segments  apparently,  of  the  body,  and  the  extrem- 
ity terminated  with  a  pair  of  pincers.  October  i4th. — The  viscera 
were  now  fully  developed,  the  chain  of  nerve-ganglia,  chiefly  in 
pairs,  the  alimentary  "canal,  the  dorsal  vessel  and  the  respiratory 
tubes  distinctly  visible.  The  action  of  the  dorsal  vessel  was 
beautifully  exhibited.  The  structure  exhibited  this  peculiarity, 
that  instead  of  the  usual  form  of  valves,  there  were  distinctly 
seen  at  short  intervals,  on  the  surface,  opposite  to  each  other,  two 
or  four  small  tubercles  that  completely  closed  the  canal  when  in 
action,  for  an  instant.  The  intestines  were  furnished  with  four 
long  coveca,  two  ascending  and  two  descending.  The  air  vessels 
terminated  in  bifurcating  processes  on  the  last  segment  of  the 
abdomen. 

Prof.  Harrington  reported  that  Miss  C.  A.  Sager  and  him- 
self had  examined  some  twenty  samples  of  tea  obtained  froir 


24  (Proceedings  of  Ike 

dealers  in  Ann  Arbor,  and   found  them  free  from   adulterations 
with  other  leaves. 

On  motion,  the  Association  adjourned. 

P.   B.  ROSE,  Secretary. 


OCTOBER  2,  1875. 

The  Association  was  called  to  order  at  7^  p.  M.,  Dr.  A.  B. 
Prescott,  Vice-President,  in  the  chair. 

The  minutes  of  the  previous  meeting  were  read  and  ap- 
proved. 

The  following  proposals  for  membership  were  received  in 
due  form  and  referred  to  the  Board  of  Censors :  Profs.  C.  L. 
Ford,  W.  H.  Pettee  and  J.  W.  Langley,  of  Ann  Arbor ;  Prof. 
J.  Taft,  of  Cincinnati;  C.  N.  B.  Hall,  and  Mrs.  B.  C.  Farrand. 

The  Board  reported  favorably  on  the  above,  and  each  being 
duly  balloted  for,  they  were  declared  elected. 

Prof.  Harrington,  from  the  committee  on  blanks,  appointed 
at  the  August  meeting,  reported  the  work  completed,  and  the 
necessary  blanks  obtained,  with  the  exception  of  the  warrant- 
book. 

The  report  was  accepted,  and  the  committee  was  authorized 
to  [procure  the  warrant-book. 

The  bill  of  R.  A.  Beal  for  printing  blanks,  $6.00,  was  re- 
ceived and  referred  to  the  Board  of  Censors. 

Prof.  Greene  was  here  introduced,  and  read  a  paper  on 
"The  Removal  of  Obstructions  under  Water"  of  which  the  fol- 
lowing is  an  abstract : 

The  improvement  of  navigable  waters,  as  a  public  benefit,  is 
undertaken  by  the  United  States,  and  is  carried  on  under  the 
Corps  of  Engineers.  The  expenses,  compared  with  that  of  the 
removal  of  similar  materials  on  land,  is  very  great  in  many  cases, 
as  the  work  is  often  done  at  a  disadvantage. 

Soft  materials  may  be  removed  by  dredging.  In  very  shoal 
water,  dredging  may  be  done  by  hand,  by  means  of  a  pole  and 


Ann  Arbor  Scientific  Association.  25 

scoop.  More  commonly,  in  the  depths  of  water  to  be  found  or 
made  in  channels  for  vessels,  machines  are  employed.  These 
may  be  classified  as  the  scoop  or  dipper-dredge,  the  endless 
chain  and  bucket  dredge,  and  the  clam-shell  dredge.  A  descrip- 
tion of  these  forms,  illustrated  by  drawings,  was  given.  The  last 
named  is  very  effective.  It  will,  for  instance,  remove  the  slabs 
and  edgings  which  accumulate  in  rivers  below  saw-mills.  The 
material  dredged  is  emptied  into  scows,  and  towed  to  deep 
water  or  a  suitable  dumping  ground. 

The  Engineer  Corps  designed  a  boat  for  use  on  the  bars  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi,  which  stirred  up  the  mud  by  pro- 
pellers. A  ten-feet  channel  has  been  deepened  to  fifteen  feet. 
The  improvement  was  not  permanent.  Col.  Eads  is  now  trying 
the  method  of  jetties  or  piers. 

Boulders  in  shallow  water  may  be  removed  by  scows  after  a 
hole  is  drilled  and  an  iron  bar  inserted  and  wedged.  The  scows 
are  first  lowered  by  letting  in  water,  and  then  raised  by  bailing. 
In  tidal  waters  a  simple  raft  of  logs  may  be  employed,  which 
lifts  as  the  tide  rises. 

Blasting  away  ledges  may  be  done  in  shallow  water  by 
drilling  from  a  moored  boat,  and  inserting  a  tin  tube  containing 
the  charge,  which  may  be  fired  by  a  water-proof  fuse  or  by  a 
battery.  The  space  to  be  worked  upon  may  be  laid  bare  by  a 
cofferdam.  A  steam  drill  is  sometimes  employed  in  ten  or 
twelve  feet  of  water,  by  placing  the  drill  on  the  top  of  a  strongly 
braced  tripod  to  keep  the  steam  cylinder  from  being  chilled  by 
contact  with  the  water,  and  using  a  sufficiently  long  drill  rod. 
Generally,  in  water  of  ten  feet  and  over,  the  aid  of  divers  is 
called  in. 

The  dress  of  the  diver,  with  his  means  of  protection  against 
cold,  and  the  manner  of  supplying  him  with  air,  were  then  de- 
scribed in  detail.  The  different  sorts  of  blasts  were  described  as 
surface,  face  and  hole  blasts.  Gunpowder,  dualin  and  other  ex- 
ploders were  described,  and  an  account  given  of  the  work  on 
Blossom  Rock  in  San  Francisco  Harbor,  and  on  Hell  Gate,  New 
York. 


26  (Proceedings  of  the 

The  paper  was  quite  fully  discussed  by  different  members  of 
the  Association.  Prof.  Ten  Brook  asked  with  regard  to  the  use 
of  a  submarine  boat  or  torpedo.  Prof.  Greene  replied  that  the 
torpedo  was  quite  successful,  as  it  could  be  directed  from  the  sur- 
face. Prof.  Ten  Book  then  related  some  experience  he  had  had 
with  a  Mr.  Bauer,  of  Germany,  who  had  invented  a  submarine 
frigate,  and  was  anxious  to  introduce  it  into  this  country  during 
the  late  war. 

Prof.  Harrington  gave  the  results  of  some  investigations 
which  he  had  recently  made  on  some  proprietary  foods  for 
babies,  which  are  kept  for  sale  by  druggists.  The  first  examined 
was  "Baby  s  Cereal  Food"  He  described  it  as  a  fine  brownish 
powder,  with  a  sweet,  scorched  taste.  It  was  composed  mostly 
of  wheat-starch,  altered  by  a  wet  heat.  A  little  gluten  and  frag- 
ments of  the  envelopes  of  the  wheat  grain  are  present.  The 
starch  is  scorched,  and  a  little  sugar  is  afterwards  added. 

2d.  "Ridge' 's  Prepared  Food"  It  is  a  brownish,  sweet 
powder,  and  is  composed  of  well-bolted  wheat-flour,  scorched 
and  a  little  sugar  added. 

3d.  "Sea-Moss  Farine"  A  violet-brown  powder  with  a 
sea-water  taste.  It  is  composed  of  a  small  proportion  of  wheat- 
starch  and  of  ground  Irish  moss  {Chondrus  crispus),  with  a  few 
fragments  of  tissue  not  recognized,  but  supposed  to  be  impurities 
in  the  Irish  moss. 

The  Professor  stated  that  he  could  not  recommend  any  one 
of  them  as  a  food  for  babies,  for  at  best  they  contain  but  little 
else  than  starch  and  sugar. 

Dr.  Jackson  exhibited  a  specimen  of  rush  in  which  the  pods 
of  the  flower  were  changed  to  leaves. 

Prof.  Harrington  exhibited  two  specimens  of  the  Venus 
Fly-Trap  in  a  living  condition,  obtained  from  Wilmington, 
North  Carolina. 

On  motion, 'it  was  ordered  that  the  Secretary  be  instructed 
to  have  printed  the  Constitution,  By-Laws  and  list  of  members 
of  the  Association. 

No  further  business  appearing,  the  Association  adjourned. 

P.  B.  ROSE,  Secretary. 


Ann  Arbor  Scientific  Association. 


OCTOBER  30,  1875. 

A  special  meeting  of  the  Association  was  held  at  7^ 
o'clock,  according  to  previous  notice,  and  was  called  to  order  by 
the  President,  Dr.  Cocker. 

The  minutes  of  the  previous  meeting  were  read  and  ap- 
proved. 

Bills  of  R.  A.  Beal,  for  printing,  amounting  to  $3.75,  were 
received  and  referred  to  the  Board  of  Censors. 

Prof.  Harrington  offered  the  following  amendments  to  the 
By-laws,  which  were  required  to  lie  over  one  month,  under  the 
rule.  (For  these  amendments,  see  By-Laws.) 

It  was  moved  and  supported  that  a  committee  of  three,  con- 
sisting of  the  Board  of  Censors,  be  appointed  to  provide  for  a 
course  of  popular  lectures  before  the  Association,  with  full  power 
to  act  in  the  selection  of  speakers  and  subjects.  Carried. 

Dr.  Cocker  read  a  paper  on  the  "Nature  of  Life,"  written 
by  Dr.  Lionel  S.  Beale,  F.  R.  S.,  of  London.  (See  Appendix 
E.)  The  paper  was  very  interesting. 

In  the  discussion  which  followed,  Prof.  A.  B.  Prescott  said 
that  he  had  difficulty  in  obtaining  a  clear  and  consistent  concep- 
tion of  the  position  of  Dr.  Beale,  and  of  some  other  biologists, 
upon  one  point  discussed  in  the  very  able  paper  of  this  evening. 
This  point  was  as  to  the  kind  of  force  which  produces  and  preserves 
the  matter  of  living  tissues,  simply  as  matter,  irrespective  of 
structure  or  of  life.  Thus,  in  a  piece  of  living  nerve  tissue, 
there  are  certain  kinds  of  matter,  made  up  of  the  elements  car- 
bon, hydrogen,  nitrogen  and  oxygen.  Certainly  these  elements 
are  united  by  some  sort  of  force  or  action  ;  and  this  is  a  trans- 
forming force  or  action  (/'.  e.,  it  fills  the  chief  definition  of 
chemism)  ;  otherwise  the  matter  would  be  only  a  mixture  of  dust 
and  gases.  The  composition  of  these  elements,  to  form  certain 
kinds  of  matter  is  one  thing  ;  the  organization  of  this  matter 


28  (Proceedings  of  the 

into  certain  outlines  of  structure  is  another  thing ;  the  vitaliza- 
tion  of  the  matter  would  seem  to  be  yet  another  thing.  Mr. 
Prescott  was  predisposed,  by  all  that  he  knew  in  science,  to  be- 
lieve that  chemical  force  is  wholly  distinct  in  operation  from  the 
force  that  produces  organization,  and  from  the  force  that  effects 
vitalization.  When  chemical  force  has  constructed  the  mole- 
cule, it  has  done.  From  its  very  nature,  it  can  do  no  more. 
There  is  a  current  way  of  almost  ascribing  crystallization  to 
chemical  force  ;  but  of  course  no  structure  larger  than  the  mole- 
cule can  be  due  to  chemical  force.  Now,  it  seemed  almost  self- 
evident,  that  the  formation  of  all  molecules  is  due  to  one  sort 
of  immediate  cause,  as  much  in  tissues  as  in  rocks,  and  as  truly 
in  the  gelatinous  substance  of  bone  as  in  the  calcium  phosphate 
of  bone.  It  appears  to  be  the  essential  position  of  Dr.  Beale, 
that  chemical  force  cannot  produce  organization  or  vital  action. 
Now,  this  strong  position  is  not  at  all  supported,  but  is  weak- 
ened and  controverted,  by  the  doctrine  that  vital  force  forms 
molecules  by  uniting  atoms.  To  suppose  that  vital  or  organiz- 
ing force  can  hold  together  the  elements  in  the  substance  albu- 
men is  but  one  degree  less  absurd  than  to  suppose  that  chemical 
force  can  construct  cells  from  albumen  molecules.  There  is  a 
gulf  fixed  between  the  formation  of  matter,  homogeneous  as  it  is 
under  the  most  powerful  microscope,  and  the  organization  of 
matter  into  cells ;  and  this  gulf  can  no  more  be  crossed  from  the 
side  of  vitality  than  from  the  side  of  chemism.  The  main  posi- 
tion of  Dr.  Beale,  that  chemical  force  does  not  effect  organiza- 
tion or  vital  action,  would  not  be  affected  in  the  least  should  it 
occur,  in  ten  years  or  in  fifty  years,  that  albumen  should  be  syn- 
thesized in  the  laboratory. 

Mr.  Prescott  thought  that  organic  chemists  would  not  agree 
with  Mr.  Bloxam,  as  quoted,  that  no  permanent  constituent  of 
tissue  has  been  chemically  synthesized.  Perhaps  it  would  be 
difficult  to  decide  or  to  agree  as  to  what  are  permanent  or  essen- 
tial constituents  of  tissue ;  but  perhaps  it  would  be  agreed  that 
fats  are  such.  Caproin  and  caprin  are  tolerably  complex  fats, 
and  they  have  been  synthesized. 


Ann  Arbor  Scientific  Association.  29 . 

Farther  discussion  by  Mr.  E.  C.  Seaman,  Dr.  Cocker  and 
others,  took  place. 

Mr.  Prescott  said  he  wished  to  add,  in  explanation  of  what 
he  had  already  said,  that  he  concedes  that  the  organizing  and 
vital  forces  in  living  bodies  may  and  probably  do  induce  and 
modify  chemical  actions  in  these  bodies  ;  just  as  chemical  action 
is  affected  by  physical  forces  :  iron  and  sulphur  not  uniting  until 
a  certain  temperature  is  reached.  But  the  union  is  chemical,  in 
nature  and  in  proportions,  and,  as  we  do  not  say  that  ferrous  sul- 
phide is  a  calorific  compound,  we  should  not  say  that  albumen  is 
a  vital  compound. 

Miss  Allmendinger  exhibited  an  Indian  pipe-bowl,  very 
highly  polished.  It  was  plowed  up  on  the  farm  of  Mr.  David 
Allmendinger,  a  few  miles  west  of  Ann  Arbor. 

The  Board  reported  favorably  on  the  bills  of  R,  A.  Beal, 
amounting  to  $10.25,  an(^  recommended  their  allowance  and 
payment. 

On  motion,  the  report  was  adopted,  and  a  warrant  ordered 
drawn  for  the  amount. 

It  was  moved  by  Dr.  Brigham,  that  the  next  regular  meeting 
be  held  at  7  o'clock,  on  account  of 'another  lecture  on  the  same 
evening.  Carried. 

On  motion,  the  Association  adjourned. 

P.  B.  ROSE,  Secretary. 


NOVEMBER  6,  1875. 

The  seventh  regular  meeting  of  the  Association  was  held, 
Dr.  Cocker  in  the  chair. 

The  minutes  of  the  special  meeting  were  read  and  ap- 
proved. 

Applications  for  membership,  properly  recommended,  were 
received  from  V.  M.  Spalding,  W.  R.  Birdsall  and  D.  C.  Haux- 
hurst.  They  were  referred  to  the  Board  of  Censors,  who  re- 
ported favorably  on  them  and  the  following  additional  names  : 


$o  (Proceedings  of  the 

J.  C.  Watson,  E.  Olney,  I.  N.  Elwood,  W.  J.  Herdrnan,  F.  T. 
Brown,  A.  B.  Palmer,  B.  E.  Nichols,  A.  V.  E.  Young,  Mrs. 
Sallie  Crane,  S.  W.  Smith,  W.  S.  Perry,  Miss  L.  A.  Chittenden, 
C.  Rominger,  Miss  O.  W.  Bates,  S.  A.  Jones,  E.  S.  Dunster,  J. 
C.  Morgan,  D.  M.  Finley,  F.  A.  Cady  and  F.  H.  Kimball. 

On  motion,  Section  2  of  Article  2  of  the  By-Laws  was  sus- 
pended for  the  evening,  and  the  above  candidates  were  elected 
viva  voce. 

Mr.  Randall,  photographer,  of  Detroit,  presented  the  pho- 
tographs of  the  following  distinguished  scientists  and  members 
of  the  American  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science : 
Prof.  J.  E.  Hilgard,  Washington,  D.  C.  ;  Dr.  J.  L.  Le  Conte, 
Philadelphia;  C.  V.  Riley,  St.  Louis,  Mo.;  and  Prof.  Edward 
S  Morse,  Salem,  Mass. 

On  motion,  a  vote  of  thanks  was  extended  to  Mr.  Randall 
for  these  photographs,  and  the  Secretary  was  instructed  to  have 
them  suitably  framed. 

On  motion,  the  Association  adjourned. 

P.  B.  ROSE,  Secretary. 


DECEMBER  4,  1875. 

The  Association  met  at  the  usual  time  and  place. 

In  the  absence  of  the  Secretary,  C.  E.  Greene  was  elected 
Secretary  pro  tempore. 

On  motion,  Mr.  E.  C.  Seaman  obtained  permission  to  read 
some  remarks  on  the  paper  offered  by  Dr.  Cocker  on  "  Life"  at 
the  last  meeting.  (See  Appendix  F.) 

Miss  C.  E.  Allmendinger,  from  the  Committee  on  the 
"Flora  of  Ann  Arbor,"  made  a  final  report,  which  was  ac- 
cepted. (See  Appendix  G.) 

Mr.  S.  T.  Douglas  then  read  a  paper  on  the  "  Colored 
Snow  Fall  of  February,  1875."  (See  Appendix  H.) 

This  was  discussed  by  Prof.  Langley,  who  thought  that  the 
dust  might  have  been  derived  from  Mt.  Hecla  of  Iceland.  Prof. 


Ann  Arbor  Scientific  Association.  31 

Harrington  thought,  from  microscopical  examination,  that  it 
might  be  the  dust  from  the  streets  of  Chicago  or  some  other 
large  city.  Prof.  Douglas  expressed  himself  as  convinced  that 
the  threads  in  the  dust  were  Pele's  hair.  Dr.  Jackson  and  others 
also  partook  in  the  discussion. 

Prof.  Harrington  spoke  of  the  tenacity  of  life  in  some  land- 
snails,  sent  home  from  the  Amazon  by  Prof.  Steere.  It  is  five 
years  since  they  came  here,  yet  last  summer  some  of  them  awoke 
and  moved  about  the  case  in  which  they  were  placed. 

No  further  business  appearing,  the  Association  adjourned. 
C.  E.   GREENE,  Secretary  pro  tern. 


JANUARY  1,  1876. 

The  Association  met  at  7^  o'clock  P.  M.,  and,  in  the  ab- 
sence of  both  President  and  Vice-President,  Prof.  O.  C.  Johnson 
was  elected  President  pro  tempore. 

The  roll  was  called,  and  a  quorum  found  present. 

Prof.  Harrington  reported  that  Prof.  Sill,  of  Detroit,  would 
probably  lecture  before  the  Association  in  two  weeks. 

The  Secretary  reported  the  photographs  framed,  and  pre- 
sented the  bill  for  the  same,  amounting  to  $7.25,  which,  on 
motion,  was  allowed,  and  a  warrant  ordered  drawn  for  the 
amount. 

The  following  bills  were  presented,  and  warrants  ordered 
drawn  for  the  amounts  :  C.  G.  Clark,  for  envelopes  and  stamps, 
$10.08;  Prof.  Harrington,  for  money  paid  janitors,  etc.,  $5.75  ; 
H.  C.  Wilmot,  posting  bills,  38  cents. 

The  amendments  to  the  By-Laws,  offered  at  the  regular 
meeting  in  November,  1875,  were  taken  up  article  by  article  and 
adopted.  (See  Amendments,  after  Constitution  and  By-Laws.) 

On  motion,  the  Association  adjourned,  to  meet  Saturday 
evening,  January  8,  at  seven  o'clock. 

P.  B.   ROSE,  Secretary. 


3%  (Proceedings  of  the 


JANUARY  8,  1876. 

The  Association  met  pursuant  to  previous  adjournment, 
and  was  called  to  order  by  the  President,  Dr.  Cocker. 

The  minutes  of  the  meeting  of  January  ist  were  read  and 
approved. 

Propositions  for  membership  of  A.  P.  Wood  and  Chas. 
Tripp  were  received  and  referred  to  the  Board  of  Censors. 

Prof.  Pettee  was  here  introduced,  and  read  a  paper  on 
"  Barometric  Measurements  of  Altitudes." 

The  object  of  this  paper  was  to  discuss  questions  relating  to 
the  degree  of  accuracy  attainable  in  measuring  the  height  of 
mountains  by  means  of  the  mercurial  barometer  ;  and  to  exhibit 
certain  interesting  results  obtained  by  Mr.  Pettee  when  engaged 
as  assistant  upon  the  State  Geological  Survey  of  California, 
under  the  direction  of  Prof.  J.  D.  Whitney. 

The  detailed  account  of  the  experiments  instituted  in  Cali- 
fornia, and  of  the  manner  of  carrying  on  the  work,  may  be 
found  in  the  publications  of  that  survey. 

For  a  period  of  three  years,  barometric  and  thermometric 
observations  were  taken  three  times  a  day  at  three  different  sta- 
tions, the  altitudes  of  which  above  the  sea-level  were  known 
from  the  spirit-level  surveys  of  the  Central  Pacific  Railroad. 
These  observations  were  taken  as  the  data  from  which  to  calcu- 
late in  the  usual  way  the  differences  of  altitude  between  the  re- 
spective stations.  When  the  calculated  differences  of  altitude 
were  compared  with  the  known  differences,  certain  remarkable 
discrepancies  became  evident.  The  calculated  differences  were 
always  higher  in  summer  than  in  winter,  higher  at  noon  that  at 
morning  or  night,  and  in  some  cases  higher,  in  others  lower, 
than  the  true  differences.  The  practical  benefits  to  be  derived 
from  such  an  investigation  is  the  guide  it  affords  to  the  explorer 
in  selecting  the  time  of  day  or  the  season  of  the  year  in  which 


Ann  Arbor  Scientific  Association.  33 

to  make  his  observations  for  altitude,  and  in  estimating  the  cor- 
rection to  be  applied  to  calculating  differences  of  altitude,  if  the 
observations  have  been  made  under  unfavorable  circumstances. 

A  discussion  was  engaged  in 'by  Drs.  Brigham,  Douglas  and 
Morgan . 

The  Board  of  Censors  reported  favorably  on  Messrs.  Tripp 
and  Wood,  and  they  were  duly  balloted  for  and  elected. 

Dr.  Herdman  read  a  paper  which  called  attention  to  some 
recent  contributions  to  the  knowledge  of  the  state  of  Iceland, 
during  the  last  year.  (See  Appendix  J.) 

On  motion,  the  Association  adjourned. 

P.  B.   ROSE,  Secretary. 


FEBRUARY  5,  1876. 

In  the  absence  of  the  President  and  Vice-President,  Dr.  C. 
H.  Brigham  was  called  to  the  chair. 

The  Secretary  also  being  absent,  W.  J.  Herdman  was  ap- 
pointed Secretary  pro  tempore. 

Dr.  J.  B.  Steere,  R.  A.  Beal  and  Wm.  H.  Smith  were  pro- 
posed for  membership,  and,  on  motion,  the  Secretary  was  in- 
structed to  cast  the  vote  for  their  election. 

A  lecture  was  then  delivered  by  Dr.  Steere  on  the  pottery, 
architecture,  etc.,  ancient  and  modern,  of  the  Amazon,  and 
Peru.  (See  Appendix  K.) 

A  plaster  cast  of  a  relic  taken  from  an  ancient  mound  near 
Rockford,  Illinois,  was  presented  to  the  Association  by  Mr.  F. 
H.  Kimball. 

The  thanks  of  the  Association  were  tendered  to  Mr.  Kim- 
ball,  for  the  gift,  and  to  Dr.  Steere,  for  his  interesting  and  in- 
structive address. 

A  few  remarks  succeeded,  on  the  viability  of  seeds,  during 
which  a  statement  was  made  by  Prof.  Harrington,  in  answer  to 
an  inquiry,  that  the  British  Agricultural  Commission  rarely  suc- 
3 


34  (Proceedings  of  the 

ceeded,  after  thousands  of  experiments,  in  prolonging  the  vital- 
ity of  seeds  beyond  fifteen  years. 

On  motion,  the  Association  adjourned  until  the  next  regular 
meeting. 

W.  J.   HERDMAN,  Secretary  pro  tern. 


MARCH  4,  1870. 

The  Association  met  in  the  Medical  Lecture-Room,  and  was 
called  to  order  by  the  President,  Dr.  Cocker. 

The  minutes  of  the  previous  meeting  were  read  and  ap- 
proved. 

Propositions  for  membership  from  H.  D.  Bennett  and  J. 
McDonald  were  received,  and  referred  to  the  Board  of  Censors. 

The  Board  reported  favorably,  and,  on  motion,  the  Secre- 
tary was  authorized  to  cast  the  ballot  for  the  Association,  which 
was  done  in  favor  of  their  election. 

Prof.  Harrington,  of  the  Board  of  Censors,  gave  notice  of 
the  following  lectures  and  papers  to  be  presented  to  the  Associa- 
tion : 

Public  lecture  for  the  middle  of  March,  Prof.  Langley,  on 
the  "Physical  Theory  of  Hearing." 

At  the  regular  meeting  in  April,  a  paper  by  Mr.  A.  Macy, 
of  Detroit,  on  "  Iceland." 

A  paper,  at  the  regular  meeting  in  May,  by  Prof.  J.  B. 
Davis  ;  subject  not  yet  known. 

Paper,  for  the  regular  meeting  in  June,  by  Dr.  C.  George, 
on  the  "  The  Connection  between  Organic  Germs  and  Disease." 

Dr.  Dunster  was  here  introduced,  and  delivered  a  very  in- 
teresting lecture  on  the  "  History  of  the  Theory  of  Spontaneous 
Generation."  (See  Appendix  L.) 

A  discussion  of  the  subject  was  participated  in  by  Mr.  Sea- 
man, Prof.  Langley  and  Dr.  Dunster,  after  which  the  Association 
adjourned. 

P.  B.  ROSE,  Secretary. 


Ann  Arbor  Scientific  Association. 


APRIL  1ST,  1876. 

In  the  absence  of  the  President,  the  Vice-President,  Dr. 
Prescott,  called  the  Association  to  order  at  7^  o'clock. 

The  minutes  of  the  preceding  meeting  were  read  and  ap- 
proved. 

The  following  propositions  for  membership  were  received 
and  referred  to  the  Board  of  Censors,  who  reported  favorably  on 
the  same :  J.  Austin  Scott,  Miss  Eliza  Ladd,  Miss  Annie  Ladd. 

They  were  duly  balloted  for  and  declared  elected,  V.  C. 
Vaughan  and  V.  M.  Spalding  acting  as  tellers. 

Prof.  G.  B.  Merriman  and  G.  W.  Stone,  of  Albion,  Mich., 
were  proposed  as  Corresponding  Members,  and,  on  motion,  were 
declared  elected. 

This  being  the  annual  meeting,  and  therefore  the  night  for 
the  election  of  officers,  on  motion,  the  chair  appointed  Profs. 
Chute,  Harrington  and  Greene  to  nominate  officers  for  the  en- 
suing year.  They  reported  the  following  nominations : 

President— Dr.  A.  B.  Prescott. 

Vice- President— Prof.  C.  E.  Greene. 

Secretary— W.  D.  Harriman. 

Treasurer— G.  Tripp. 

Member  of  Board  of  Censors  for  Three  Years—Prof.  H.  N.  Chute. 

The  Association  then  proceeded  to  the  election,  V.  M. 
Spalding  and  V.  C.  Vaughan  again  acting  as  tellers.  Mr.  Tripp, 
the  nominee  for  Treasurer,  having  declined,  Dr.  Jackson  was 
nominated  in  his  place.  The  result  of  the  election  was  as  fol- 
lows : 

President— Dr.  A.  B.  Prescott. 

Vice- President— Prof.  C.  E.  Greene. 

Secretary — W.  D.  Harriman. 

Treasurer— G.  Tripp. 

Member  of  Board  of  Censors— Prof.  H.  N.  Chute. 

Prof.  Harrington,  of  the  Board  of  Censors,  spoke  of  the 
desirability  of  having  the  proceedings  of  the  Association  during 


36  Ann  Arbor  Scientific  Association.. 

the  past  year,  as  well  as  the  papers  read  before  it,  and  its  Con- 
stitution and  By-Laws,  printed. 

After  some  discussion  of  the  subject,  Prof.  Ten  Brook  moved 
that  the  whole  matter  be  referred  to  a  committee  of  three,  to  be 
appointed  by  the  chair. 

An  amendment  was  then  proposed  that  the  whole  matter  be 
referred  to  the  Board  of  Censors,  with  power  to  proceed  with 
the  publication  if  thought  desirable.  This  was  accepted  by  the 
mover  of  the  original  motion,  and,  on  being  put  to  vote,  the 
motion  thus  amended  was  carried. 

Bills  for  printing  and  bill-posting  were  presented  and  re- 
ferred to  the  Board  of  Censors,  who  reported  as  follows : 

R.  A.  Beal,  printing . « $9  00 

H.  C.  Wilmot,  bill-posting 75 

M.  W.  Harrington,  janitor  fees,  and  Mr.  Macy's  traveling  expenses 8  75 

Mr.  A.  Macy,  of  Detroit,  was  here  introduced,  and  read  an 
interesting  paper  on  "Iceland,"  giving  a  history  of  the  country 
and  its  inhabitants, 

Mr.  V.  M.  Spalding  gave  the  results  of  some  of  his  investi- 
gations in  the  Embryology  of  the  Chicken.  He  also  related  his 
observations  on  the  "Migrations  of  Chlorophyll-grains."  (See 
Appendix  M.)  Both  papers  were  illustrated  by  blackboard 
sketches. 

On  motion,  a  vote  of  thanks  was  tendered  Mr.  Macy  for  his 
very  pleasing  and  interesting  lecture. ,  The  motion  was  adopted 
by  a  rising  vote. 

No  further  business  appearing,  on  motion  the  'Association 

adjourned. 

P.  B.  ROSE,  Secretary. 


. — 'The  following  public  and  advertised  lectures  were  given  to  the 
Association  and  the  public  at  other  than  the  regular  meetings: 
Prof.  J.  Watson,  on  the  "Transit  of  Venus" 

Prof.  C.  L,  Ford,  on  the  "Anterior  Extremity,  Human  and  Comparative." 
Prof.  J.  W.  Langley,  on  the  "Physical  Theory  of  Hearing.'1 


APPENDIX. 


CONTAINING  IN  FULL  MANY  OF  THE    PAPERS 

AND  LECTURES  BEFORE  THE  ANN  ARBOR 

SCIENTIFIC    ASSOCIATION. 


LIBRARY 

UNIVERSITY  OF 

<  \\UFOliNIA. 


THE  ELEVATION  OF  ARCTIC  REGIONS. 

During  my  year's  stay  in  the  Territory  of  Alaska,  I  picked 
up  some  evidence  of  the  gradual  elevation  of  the  land  going  on 
at  this  time.  I  will  first  give  that  seen  by  myself,  and  then  refer 
to  the  proofs  of  upheaval,  of  which  I  was  told  while  there,  or 
which  I  have  found  already  recorded. 

Amaknak  Island  is  about  two  miles  long  by  one  broad,  and 
lies  in  Captain's  Harbor,  a  deep  indentation  in  the  northern  end 
of  Unalaska,  one  of  the  largest  of  the  Aleutian  Islands.  Amak- 
nak is  composed  of  three  or  four  distinct  masses  of  hills  or  ridges 
connected  by  stretches  of  lowlands  which  are  nearly  level,  and 
not  more  than  30  feet  above  the  level  of  high  water.  The  south- 
ernmost of  these  level  stretches  shows  a  distinct  and  fine  series 
of  elevated  beaches.  They  are  six  in  number,  and  from  east  to 
west  each  one  is  rather  higher  than  the  one  next  to  it.  The  east- 
ernmost one  is  quite  short,  extending  from  a  point  of  rocks  on 
the  northern  wall.  It  reaches  out  to  the  quiet  water  on  the 
eastern  side  of  the  neck.  It  is  about  10  feet  higher  t|pan  the 
next,  a  much  greater  difference  than  between  any  other  two 
successive  beaches.  When  this  beach  was  formed,  the  hill-masses 
between  which  it  lies  were  distinct  islands.  It  was  not  until  the 
fourth  beach  was  formed  that  the  strait  was  entirely  closed. 

The  east  side  of  the  lowland  just  described  borders  a  land- 
locked passage  of  water.  It  shelves  gradually  down  to  the  water's 
edge.  There  is  never  more  surf  on  its  beach  than  there  would 
be  on  that  of  an  inland  lake  half  a  mile  across.  On  the  opposite 
side,  however,  a  heavy  surf  comes  in,  and  a  section  of  the  beaches 


40  Appendix. 

would  look  something  like  a  series  of  steps.  The  highest  beach 
is  about  T  2  feet  above  high  water  mark.  Between  the  two  we 
have  three  distinct  beaches.  Of  these  the  last  is  undoubtedly 
recent,  the  result  of  an  unusually  heavy  storm.  The  next  is  com- 
paratively recent,  for  it  is  not  yet  covered  with  grass  and  other 
vegetation,  except  Mertensia,  Honkenya^  and  a  few  similar  beach 
plants,  which  also  cover  a  part  of  one  below. 

Thus  we  have  nine  successive  beaches,  gradually  rising  from 
the  west  to  the  east. 

At  least  one  other  similar  set  of  beaches  is  found  on  the 
island.  These  are  in  a  curve  of  high  lands,  partially  protected 
from  the  action  of  the  surf.  The  beaches  are  much  more  nu- 
merous, and  rather  more  irregular  than  in  the  preceding  case. 

Evidence  to  the  same  effect  is  found  in  a  water-worn  aich- 
way  of  rocks  near  the  southern  end  of  Amaknak.  It  is  about  10 
feet  wide  and  15  feet  high,  and  passes  through  a  wall  of  rock  50 
feet  high.  It  shows  every  evidence  in  its  smoothed  sides  and 
graveled  floor  of  being  made  by  the  action  of  waves,  but  its 
floor  now  stands  10  feet  above  high  water  mark,  and  is  fairly  out 
of  reach  of  the  highest  surf. 

Recent  sea-urchins,  shells,  etc.,  are  often  found  on  the  rocky 
hills  50  to  500  feet  above  the  water  level,  but  they  have,  in  most 
cases,  been  undoubtedly  brought  there  by  birds.  The  writer  has 
often  seen  ravens  carrying  them  to  such  places.  They  raise  the 
shells  and  similar  objects  40  or  50  feet  above  the  surface,  and 
then  drop  them  on  rocks  to  break  them  open.  The  presence  of 
such  objects,  except  in  strata,  could  hardly  be  taken  as  evidence 
if  the  elevation  of  the  land. 

Captain  Hennig,  one  of  the  agents  of  the  Alaska  Commer- 
cial Company,  who  has  lived  in  the  Territory  some  years,  in- 
formed the  writer  of  the  following  facts :  A  harbor  on  Atka 
Island,  one  of  the  Middle  Aleutians,  in  which  not  many  years 
ago  there  was  plenty  of  water,  is  now  so  completely  shoaled  that 
boats  cannot  enter.  An  island  just  south  of  the  point  of  Alaska, 
formerly  separated  from  the  peninsula,  is  now  connected  with  it 
by  a  neck  of  land  four  feet  above  high  water.  The  writer  has 


Appendix.  41 

heard  in  general  terms,  and  from  several  sources,  that  many  of 
the  passes  between  the  Aleutian  Islands,  formerly  safe,  have  now 
shoaled  so  much  as  to  have  become  dangerous.  Ball,  in  his  Re- 
sources of  Alaska,  states  that  Isanotski,  marked  as  a  navigable 
though  dangerous  pass  between  Unimak  Island  and  Aliaska  Pe- 
ninsula by  French  surveyors,  is  now  a  cul-de-sac. 

Ball  also  gives  the  following  facts  :  On  St.  Michael's  Island, 
in  Norton  Sound,  and  on  the  neck  between  Norton  and  Kotzebue 
Sounds,  lie  great  winrows  of  drift  wood,  similar  to  those  thrown 
up  to-day,  but  far  beyond  the  reach  of  the  water  at  its  present 
level.  On  St.  Michael's  Island  also  are  some  basaltic  rocks,  full 
of  amygdaloid  cavities.  The  upper  portion  of  the  rocks  is  fully  15 
feet  above  the  level  of  high  water,  and  some  grass  grows  on  it. 
Yet  in  its  cavities,  in  situ,  can  be  found  fragments  of  species  of 
barnacle,  which  must  have  lived  there  when  the  rock  was  cov- 
ered daily  by  the  tide. 

Areas  of  local  upheaval  and  depression  occur  in  Southern 
Alaska  quite  frequently,  but  they,  of  course,  have  but  little  bear- 
ing on  the  general  question.  A  few  years  before  our  residence 
there,  a  part  of  the  site  of  the  village  of  Illiuliuk,  on  Unalaska 
Island,  was  lowered  until  covered  by  water,  and  a  part  of  the 
bay's  bottom  was  brought  to  the  surface.  This  occurred  during 
a  severe  earthquake.  Ball  quotes  Captain  Riedell  to  the  effect 
that  a  part  of  the  south  harbor  of  Unga  Island,  one  of  the  Shu- 
magin  group,  shoaled  from  4  fathoms  to  4  feet  during  an  earth- 
quake shock  in  May,  1868.  It  is  well  known  that  Bogosloff 
Island,  to  the  west  of  Unalaska,  appeared  above  the  surface  with 
much  fire,  smoke,  tremblings  of  the  earth  and  other  disturbances 
between  May  i  and  May  14,  1796.  At  this  time,  stones  were 
thrown  to  Umnak,  a  distance  of  about  twenty-five  miles.  Eight 
years  after,  when  the  island  was  visited,  the  sea  was  still  hot 
around  it.  Ball  records  the  sinking  of  a  low  point  in  Chalmer's 
Bay,  Prince  William's  Sound.  The  stumps  of  the  trees  formerly 
covering  the  point  are  now  beneath  the  level  of  the  lowest  tides. 
This  is  an  isolated  fact,  and  the  phenomenon  seems  entirely  local. 

The  northern  shore  of  Alaska  has  the  characteristics  of  a 
land  just  rising  from  the  sea.  It  is  generally  level  and  slopes 


42  Appendix. 

gradually  toward  the  ocean.  The  latter  is  so  shoal  as  to  be  dan- 
gerous for  vessels  for  a  long  distance  off  the  coast.  From  the 
coast  inwards  the  land  abounds  in  lagoons,  inlets,  lakes,  all 
shallow.  The  evidence  of  this  character  is  supported  by  the 
statement  of  Howorth  (Nature,  V.,  163)  that  parts  of  the  coast 
described  by  Beechey  as  cliffs,  are  now  separated  from  the  water 
by  low  flats. 

As  to  other  circum polar  lands,  Reclus  states  that  the  southern 
end  of  Greenland  is  sinking,  and  then  quotes  Hayes  to  the  effect 
that  the  northern  end  is  rising  along  with  GrinnelPs  Land. 
Hayes  noticed  sea  beaches  on  these  coasts  that  had  been  raised  to 
the  height  of  100  feet.  He  also  noticed  that  the  rocky  headland 
cliffs  were  polished  by  ice  up  to  this  height. 

Going  westward,  Dall  states  that  the  eastern  coast  of  Siberia 
is  rising.  Howorth  quotes  Wrangel  and  others  to  show  that  the 
northern  coast  of  Siberia  is  rising.  Drift  wood  is  found  12  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  large  birch  logs  are  scattered  over 
some  of  the  northern  plains  3°  north  of  any  known  Siberian 
forest.  The  coasts  are  low  and  flat,  and  a  line  of  high  ground, 
parallel  with  the  sea  coast,  and  representing  a  former  beach,  lies 
a  few  versts  inland.  Whales  have  deserted  that  part  of  the 
Arctic  waters  since  the  i8th  century,  probably  owing  to  their 
shoaling.  The  Tundra  or  great  Siberian  plain  is  coated  with  fine 
sand  like  that  on  the  coast  now.  Where  Sanypcheff  found  com- 
paratively deep  water  in  1787,  are  now  found  shoals  and  banks. 

As  to  the  Scandinavian  Peninsula,  the  evidence  is  voluminous 
and  positive.  Not  only,  as  Sir  Charles  Lyell  has  said,  are  Swe- 
den and  Norway  rising,  but  the  northern  end  is  rising  more 
rapidly  than  the  southern.  The  evidence  is  given  at  consider- 
able length  in  Lyell's  "Principles  of  Geology." 

Spitzbergen  is  also  being  elevated.  Reclus  gives  the  evi- 
dence that  the  islands  of  this  group  generally  exhibit  a  series  of 
beaches  up  to  a  height  of  147  feet,  with  bones  of  whales  and 
recent  shells. 

Alaska  comes  in,  then,  with  her  share  of  evidence  for  the 
theory,  broached  by  Howorth,  that  the  Arctic  lands  are  rising. 


Appendix.  43 

Another  correspondent  of  Nature  (V.,  225),  Mr.  J.  J.  Murphy, 
suggests  that  the  Antarctic  lands  are  also  rising.  Still  another 
correspondent,  Geo.  Hamilton,  tries  to  show  that  the  earth  being 
an  ellipsoid,  a  uniform  shrinkage  would  result  in  a  change  of 
form  and  an  apparent  elevation  in  the  circumpolar  regions. 


LIST  OF  LAND  AND  FRESH-WATER   SHELLS  FOUND 

WITHIN  A  CIRCUIT  OF  FOUR   MILES 

ABOUT  ANN  ARBOR,  MICH. 


CLASS,  Gasteropoda. — ORDER,  Prosobranchiata. 

FAMILY,  Melaniidce. 

Goniobasis  Milesii  Lea,  (Huron  River). 
Goniobasis  Levesens  Mke.,  (Huron  River). 

FAMILY,    Valvatidce. 
Valvata  tricarinata,  Say,  (Huron  River.) 

FAMILY,    Viviparidce. 
Melantho  integra,  Say,  (Still  water,  Huron  River). 

FAMILY,  Rissoidce. 

Amnicola  porata,  Say,  (Huron  River). 
Amnicola  lustrica,  Say,  (Huron  River). 
Pomatiopsis  Cincinnatensis,  Anth.,  (River  banks). 

ORDER,  Pulmonata. — FAMILY,  Helicidce, 

Macrocyclis  concava,  Say,  (School- Girl's  Glen). 

Limax  campestris,  Binney,  (Common  under  dead  wood). 

Helix  albolabris,  Say,  (common). 

Helix  alolabris  var.  dentata,  (occasional.) 

Helix  alternata,  Say,  (common). 


44  -Appendix. 

Helix  elevata,  Say,  (Dead  specimens  in  recent  deposits). 
Helix  exoleta,  Binn.,'  (Cascade  Glen). 
Helix  fallax,  Say,  (common). 
Helix  hirsuta,  Say,  (common). 
Helix  labyrinthica,  Say,  (common). 
Helix  lineata,  Say,  (not  abundant). 
Helix  monodon,  Rack.,  (common). 
Helix  monodon,  var.  Leaii,   (common). 
Helix  monodon,  var.  Fraterna,  (common). 
Helix  multilineata,  Say,   (common). 
Helix  multilineata,  var.  albina,  (uncommon). 
Helix  palliata,  Say,  (uncommon). 
Helix  perspectiva,  Say,  (south  and  west,  uncommon). 
Helix  profunda,  Say,  (Cascade  Glen). 
Helix  pulchella,  Mull.,  (common). 

Helix,  solitaria,  Say,  (Dead).    Live  specimens  found  up  the 
River  by  Dr.  A.  B.  Lyons,  Detroit. 

Helix  striatella,  Anth.,  (common). 
Helix  thyroides.  Say,  (common). 
Helix  tridentata,  Say,   (common). 
Cionella  subcylindrica,  Leach,  (common). 
Pupa  armifera,  Say,  (common). 
Pupa  contracta,  Say,  (common). 
Pupa  pentodon,  Say,   (South). 
Pupa  fallax,  Say,  river  banks,  (rare). 
Vertigo  milium,  Gld.,  (common). 
Vertigo  ovata,  Say,  (common). 
Succinea  avara,  Say,  (common). 
Succinea  obliqua,  Say,  (uncommon). 
Succinea  ovalis,  Gld.  not  Say,  (uncommon). 
Succinea  Peoriensis,  Wolf,  (common). 

FAMILY,  Arionida. 
Zonites  arborea,  Say,  (common). 
Zonites  fuliginosa,  Griff.,  (Cascade  Glen). 
Zonites  indentata,  Say,  (common). 
Zonites  nitida,  Mull.,  (common). 


Appendix.  45 

Zonites  viridula,  Mke.,  (common). 

Zonites  ligera,  Say,  (common). 

Zonites  minuscula,  Binney,  (South). 

Zonites  fulra,  Drap.,  (common). 

Tebennophorus  Carolinensis,  Bosc.,  (not  abundant). 

FAMILY,  Auricutida. 
Carychium  exiguum,  Say,  (common). 
FAMILY,  Limnmdce. 
Limnaea  columella,  Say,  (rare). 
Limnsea  humilis,  Say,  (common). 

Limnaea  stagnalis,  Linn.,  (rare),  lakes  west  and  Huron  River. 
Limnaea  palustris,  Mull.,  (Swamp  north-east). 
Limnaea  desidiosa,  Say,  (common). 
Physa  gyrina,  Say,  (common). 
Physa  gyrina,  var.  hildrethiana,  (common). 
Physa  Sayii,  Tappan,  (small  lakes  west). 
Physa  heterostropha,  Say,  (common). 

Bulinus  hyphnorum,  Linn.,  (North-east,  common  early   in 
June). 

Planorbis  campanulatus,  Say,  (rare). 
Planorbis  trivolvis,  Say,  (common). 
Planorbis  bicarinatus,  Say,  (common). 
Planorbis  exacutus,  Say,  (common). 
Planorbis  albus,  Mull.,  (rare).     - 
Planorbis  parvus,  Say,  (common). 
Planorbis  deflectus,  Say,  (not  abundant), 
Segmentina  armigera,  Say,  (common). 
Ancylus  tardus,  Say,  (common). 
Ancylus  parallelus,  Hald.,(?)  (uncommon). 

CLASS,   Chonchifera. — (SECTION,  Asiphonida.} 

FAMILY,   Unionida. 
Unio  multiradiatus,  Lea,  (common). 
Unio  gibbosus,  Barnes,  (common). 
Unio  luteolus,  Lam.,  (rare). 
Unio  verrucosus,  Barnes,  (common). 


46  ^Appendix. 

Unio  pressus,  Lea,  (rare). 
Unio  novi-eboraci,  Lea,  (abundant). 
Margaritana  marginata,  Say,  (abundant). 
Margaritana  deltoidea,  Lea,  (not  abundant). 
Anodonta  edentula>  Say,  (common). 

(SECTION,  Siphonida. ) — FAMILY,   Corbiculada. 

Sphaerium  sulcatum,  Lam.,  (common). 

Sphaerium  occidentale,  Prime,  (Northeast  swamp,  common). 

Sphaerium  partumeium,  Say,  (Huron  River). 

Sphaerium  striatinum,  Lam.,  (Huron  River,  common). 

Sphaerium  secure,  Prime,  (Northeast  swamp,  on  the  River). 

Pisidium  virginicum,  Bourg.,  (River,  common). 

Pisidium  variabile,  Prime,  (Huron  River). 

Pisidium  compressum,  Prime,  (Huron  River). 

Pisidium  abditum,  Hald.,  (Huron  River). 


SUMMARY. 

Classes 2 

Orders 2 

Families i  o 

Genera 26 

Species 85 

Gasteropoda 67 

Chonchifera 18 

BRYANT  WALKER, 
CHAS.  E.   BEECHER. 

UNIVERSITY  OF  MICHIGAN,  ANN  ARBOR,  June  3, 1875. 


Appendix.  47 


c. 


INDIAN   MOUNDS  IN  GENESEE    COUNTY. 


The  mound  which  is  the  subject  of  this  paper,  is  in  the  town 
of  Argentine,  on  the  farm  of  L.  C.  Fletcher.  It  is  a  low  mound 
twenty  feet  across,  on  the  edge  of  a  hill  which  overlooks  a  marsh. 
The  descent  to  the  marsh  is  gradual.  The  soil  of  the  ridge  is  a 
coarse  gravel  resting  on  a  substratum  of  clay  and  gravel,  much 
harder  than  the  superstratum. 

The  bottom  of  the  mound  rests  on  this  stratum  of  clay  and 
gravel,  three  feet  below  the  surrounding  level.  The  earth  was 
piled  above  this  level  to  form  the  mound,  which  had  worn  down 
to  about  three  when  discovered. 

An  oak  tree,  about  one  foot  in  diameter,  had  been  growing 
on  the  center  of  the  mound,  but  is  now  entirely  gone.  The 
mound  was  first  opened  in  the  center,  when  an  entire  cranium 
was  found  with  its  under  jaw.  This  skull  had  double  teeth  in 
full  set,  and  when  closed  on  the  under  jaw  left  a  space  as  if  worn 
out  by  a  pipe-stem.  These  bones  were  very  much  decayed,  easily 
broken,  and  were  ihe  color  of  the  soil. 

Subsequently  an  examination  of  the  mound  was  made, 
which  resulted  in  the  discovery  of  the  remaining  bones  of  the 
skeleton,  a  small  urn,  splinters  of  bone,  some  pieces  of  flint,  in- 
cluding one  perfect  arrow-head,  and  three  more  craniums.  The 
urn,  flints,  etc.,  were  found  under  the  first  opening,  evidently 
belonging  to  the  first  skull  dug  up.  There  seemed  to  have  been 
but  one  entire  body  deposited,  as  the  bones  to  the  last  three 
craniums  were  missing. 


48  ^Appendix. 

The  urn  is  small,  has  a  round  bottom,  will  hold  perhaps 
one-half  pint.  The  pieces  of  bone  were  small,  well  preserved, 
quite  smooth  and  tough  ;  none  of  them  were  over  five  inches  in 
length. 

Of  the  three  craniums,  one  was  entire ;  of  another,  only  the 
frontal  bone  remained ;  the  third  had  the  frontal,  parietal,  and 
occipital  bones.  The  right  squamous  suture  of  the  last  was 
crushed  in.  Within  the  skull  was  found  a  thin,  sharp  stone, 
about  two  inches  long  and  one  and  a  quarter  inches  wide.  This 
evidently  had  entered  edge  uppermost,  and  narrow  end  first. 
These  three  skulls,  like  the  first,  had  their  faces  to  the  east,  were 
one  behind  the  other,  and  about  two  feet  apart. 

Some  of  these  articles  are  in  the  Museum  of  the  University 
of  Michigan. 

One  mile  and  a  half  south  from  this  barrow,  on  the  west 
shore  of  a  lake,  and  the  south  bank  of  a  river  that  makes  Out  of 
the  lake,  are  three  mounds,  all  larger  than  the  one  first  men- 
tioned, and,  perhaps,  four  or  five  rods  apart.  I  have  the  word 
of  two  men  who  dug  at  different  times,  that  these  mounds  con- 
tained pottery,  flint  implements,  and  one  skeleton  of  immense 
size,  such  that  the  lower  jaw  fitted  over  the  face  of  the  man  who 
dug  it  up. 

Southwest  of  these  is  another,  the  largest  of  all.  Report 
says  this  mound  contained  skeletons  in  a  lying  posture,  and  three 
rows  deep,  one  layer  above  another. 

Another  class  of  remains  found  here  is  circular  pits,  form- 
erly from  three  to  four  feet  deep,  and  four  feet  in  diameter. 
They  were  used  for  fire,  as  they  are  filled  with  charcoal,  burnt 
sand,  and  a  few  traces  of  burnt  bone. 

LORENZO  V.   FLETCHER. 

JUNE  IST,  1875. 


Appendix.  49 


THE  AROMATIC  GROUP  IN  THE  CHEMISTRY  OF 
PLANTS. 

BY    ALBERT    B.    PRESCOTT, 
PROFESSOR  OF  ORGANIC  CHEMISTRY  IN  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  MICHIGAN. 

[Read  before  the  Ann  Arbor  Scientific  Association,  July  3,  1875.] 

The  term  Aromatic  Group  was  first  given  to  the  benzoic  series 
of  compounds,  as  classified  around  the  common  nucleus  benzoyl, 
by  Leibig  and  Wohler  in  1833.  Benzoyl,  C7H5O,  was  the  first 
compound  radical  recognized  in  complex  vegetable  products, 
and  its  discovery  at  once  opened  new  ways  of  investigation  in 
the  field  of  organic  chemistry.  From  time  to  time  other  chemi- 
cal nuclei  have  been  defined,  in  the  construction  of  other 
groups  of  carbon  compounds,  until,  now,  it  may  be  said,  there 
are  as  many  series  of  these  bodies  as  most  persons  care  to  num- 
ber among  their  scientific  acquaintances.  But  there  has  been  no 
greater  activity  or  keener  enthusiasm  or  richer  reward,  in  all  the 
labors  of  the  forty  years  of  organic  chemistry,  than  in  the  work 
devoted  to  the  aromatic  group.  The  place  which  this  group 
holds  in  organic  chemistry  is  similar,  in  certai:  •  respects,  to  the 
position  which  organic  chemistry  itself  occupiej  in  general 
chemical  science. 

Among  the  valuable  results  of  the  labor  devoted  to  this 
group  we  must  accept,  first,  a  clearer  insight  into  the  constitu- 
tion of  molecules,  throwing  better  light  upon  the  chemistry  of 
all  bodies.  That  phase  of  "the  new  chemistry"  which  finds 
expression  in  graphic  formulae — the  theorizing  as  to  the  relations 
of  atoms  to  each  other  within  the  molecule,  with  whatever  of 
4 


j>  0  ^Appendix. 

well-grounded  philosophy  or  of  fallacious  hypothesis  appertains 
— has,  in  no  small  share,  been  due  to  work  which  has  been  skep- 
tically designated  as  that  of  "  those  German  chemists  running 
crazy  with  what  they  call  their  aromatic  group."  It  is  not  to  be 
supposed  that  the  expenditure  of  this  labor,  or  of  any  pioneer 
labor  in  science,  has  been  without  waste.  But  the  evidence  of 
its  substantial  success  is  before  the  chemical  world  in  the  long 
list  of  well-defined  aromatic  bodies  now  as  truly  under  the  con  - 
trol  of  the  chemist,  in  analysis  and  in  synthesis,  as  are  the  metal- 
lic salts.  And  this  evidence  is  not  addressed  to  the  chemical 
world  alone.  The  world  of  factories  and  ships,  the  world  seek- 
ing a  sign  as  to  the  truth  and  use  of  all  and  any  science,  has  re- 
ceived from  the  chemistry  of  the  aromatic  group  a  good  number 
of  palpable  demonstrations  of  the  power  of  chemical  knowledge. 
There  have  been  produced,  under  chemical  direction,  from  fhe 
waste  of  coal-gas  manutacture  alone,  aromatic  substances  as  fol- 
lows :  since  1856,  anilin  dyes,  now  sold  at  ten  millions  of  dol- 
lars yearly,  to  color  stuffs  in  the  tints  of  the  rainbow  for  every 
household;  since  1870,  madder  dye,  amounting  in  1873,  to 
1,000  tons,  valued  at  over  four  millions  of  dollars  ;  and,  this  year, 
the  acid  of  wintergreen  oil,  promising  to  be  the  most  useful  of 
the  antiseptics,  being  applicable  to  foods  and  drinks, — beside  a 
considerable  number  of  other  products,  in  themselves  of  no 
slight  importance  in  commerce  and  the  arts.  Assuredly,  the  aro- 
matic bodies  have  been  found  valuable  material  both  in  physical 
science  and  in  industrial  economy. 

As  regards  their  significance  in  biological  science,  the  ques- 
tion will  arise :  how  far  may  an  insight  into  the  constitution  of 
molecules  formed  in  plants  help  the  chemist  toward  an  under- 
standing of  the  formative  steps  in  plant  chemistry?  Before  we 
can  reach  this  final  question  in  our  subject,  we  must  consider, 
first,  what  the  aromatic  group  is  and  where  in  the  vegetable 
kingdom  it  extends,  and,  next,  by  what  steps  the  molecules  of  this 
group  are  formed  outside  of  living  bodies,  under  conditions  ar- 
ranged by  the  chemist. 

The  aromatic  group,  when  this  term  was  first  adopted,  con- 
sisted of  benzoic  acid,  bitter  almond  oil,  amygdalin,  cinnamic 


^Appendix.  51 

acid,  cinnamon  oil,  cuminic  acid  and  cummin  oil,  with  a  con- 
siderable number  of  artificial  derivatives  from  these  bodies, — 
nearly  all  having  penetrating  aromatic  odors.  The  possession  of 
aromatic  odors,  however,  is  not  especially  characteristic  of  the 
very  great  number  of  bodies  now  classified  in  this  group.  The 
present  definition  of  the  aromatic  group,  is,  in  briefest  terms,  the 
series  of  bodies  built  upon  benzene. 

Benzene  (also  termed  benzole),  containing  if  carbon  and 
-fa  hydrogen,  may  be  formulated  as  C6H6  :  being  in  vapor  39 
times  heavier  than  its  volume  of  hydrogen,  its  molecular  weight 
is  78  and  it  must  be  formulated  as  C6H6.  Carbon,  here  as 
almost  everywhere,  is  a  tetrad,  and  the  six  tetrad  atoms  of  car- 
bon have  twenty-four  bonds  of  chemical  union.  As  only  six  of 
these  are  occupied  by  the  six  monad  atoms  of  hydrogen, 
eighteen  bonds  must  (it  is  believed)  connect  carbon  with  car- 
bon,— forming  nine  lines  (or  movements?1)  of  union  between 
carbon  atoms.  As  it  is  found  in  certain  compounds  that  each 
one  of  the  six  carbon  atoms  behaves  alike,  it  appears  that  each 
must  hold  the  same  relations  to  its  fellows,  and  they  must  be  dis- 
posed in  a  ring,  as  first  proposed  by  Kekule,  in  1865.  The  nine 
H  lines  of  union  between  the  six  atoms 

of  carbon  (if  not  connecting  alternate 
or  opposite  atoms,  *'.  *.,  if  disposed  in 
//         \  the  ring)  require  the  alternate  unions 

pj £  Q £[      to   be  made   by  double  lines.     Then 

each  atom  of  carbon  in  the  ring  has 

one  bond  of  union  free  to  be  held  by 

TT^p  /"• TT 

atoms  (or  semi-molecules)  outside  of  the 

^         /  carbon  ring :    so  that  as  regards  other 

C  elements   each   atom   of    carbon  is  a 

I  monad. 

H  By  substitutions,  for  one  or  more  of 

the  six  hydrogen  atoms,  of  other  (monad)  atoms  or  radicals,  the 
formulae  of  the  various  aromatic  compounds  are  obtained  :  the 
graphic  symbol  being  always  a  hexagon. 

(1)  KEKULE,  Ann.  Chem.  u.  Pharm.,  clxii,  77.    LADENBURG,  Deut.  Chew. 
Ges.  Her.,  Y.,  322.     Watts'  Dictionary  of  Chem.,  2nd  Supplement,  132. 


Appendix. 


The  substitution  of  methyl,  CH3,  for  one,  two,  three,  etc., 
of  the  atoms  of  H  (around  the  hexagon) — and  also  for  atoms  of 
H  in  CH3 — constructs  the  hydrocarbons  of  this  group  : 

CnH2n_«  Number  of  possible  homers. 

1.  C6H6      Benzene. 

2.  C6H5(CH3)=C,H8      Toluene. 

3.  C6H4(CH3)2=C8H10  Xylene. 

Cumene. 


4.  C6H3(CH3)3=C9H12 

5.  C6H2(CH3)4=C10H14Cymene. 


Three(i,2:  1,3:1,4). 
Three(i,  2,   3:1,  2, 

[4:i,  3.  5)- 
Three(i,  2,  3,  4 :  i, 

[2,  4,  5  :  '»  3>  4,  5> 

6.  C6H(CH3)5  =  C11H16  Amylbenzene.     One(i,  2,  3,  4,  5). 

7.  C6     (CH3)6=C12H18  Amylmethylbenzene. 
etc. 

4  The  hydrocarbon  having  two  of  the  or- 

iginal hydrogen  atoms  displaced  (no.  3) 
may  evidently  have  contiguous  or  alternate 
or  opposite  atoms  displaced,  thus  present- 
ing three  different  kinds  of  molecules, — and 
the  number  of  variations  mathematically 
possible  is  given  above  as  a  theoretical  num- 
ber of  possible  isomers.  The  full  number 
i  of  possible  isomers,  on  this  theory,  has 

been  actually  produced  in  most  instances 
though  not  in  all,  and  perhaps  has  not  been  exceeded  in  any  in- 
stance. Thus,  there  are  known  three  compounds  having  the 
ultimate  composition  and  molecular  weight  of  xylene,  differing 
in  certain  properties :  orthoxylene  (having  parts  i  and  2  of  the 
hexagon  occupied  by  methyl),  isoxylene  (having  i  and  3)  and 
metaxylene  (having  i  and  4  occupied  by  methyl).  This  corre- 
spondence between  fact  and  theory  in  the  number  of  isomers 
strengthens  the  evidence  that  the  hexagonal  figure  represents  the 
actual  relations  of  the  atoms  in  the  molecule.  But  it  must  be 
borne  in  mind  that,  while  figures  are  placed  upon  paper  to  rep- 
resent certain  ascertained  relations  of  atoms  to  each  other,  noth- 
ing has  been  ascertained  as  to  the  places  of  atoms  in  molecules. 


Appendix.  53 

Other  relations  than  those  of  place  may  be  represented  geomet- 
rically, with  advantage. 

The  aromatic  hydrocarbons,  together,  are  known  as  the 
benzoles — the  chief  liquid  distillates  from  coal  tar — coal  tar 
naphtha.  Among  the  distillates  from  coal  tar  are  two  other 
hydrocarbons,  which  are  solid,  and  are  of  unusual  importance  in 
industry,  namely  :  naphthalene  and  anthracene.  These  are  not 
homologous  with  benzene,  as  members  of  the  same  series 
(CnHan^),  but  belong  each  in  another  series  related  progressively 
to  the  benzene  series,  with  mathematical  harmony,  as  follows  : 

I 
C 


Benzene C6H6    or      — C 

CnH2n_6  -    -  Single  | 

Hexagon _Q 


C— 

II 

C— 


Naphthalene d  0H8 

or    CnH2n_2x6   

Double  Hexagon — 


c 


\ 


\ 


C- 

\ 

C- 


54  .Appendix. 


I  I 

C  C 


—C  C  C— 

I  It  I 

Anthracene  ----  C^H^  0     ~C 
orCnH2n_3x6  --  Triple  ^         /        \          // 

Hexagon  --  C  C  C  — 

I  I  H 

-C  C- 

^        / 
C 

I 

From  these  hydrocarbons  (/.  e.,  from  the  hexagon,  single, 
double  or  triple)  all  the  aromatic  bodies  are  extended.  Displac- 
ing (one  or  more  atoms  of) 

H  by  OH,          phenols  are  formed  (as  in  carbolic  acid). 

[  by  C  \  OH,         acids  "         "     (as  benzoic  acid). 

H)       f  OH 

>  by  \    n  f  O     ,  acids  "         "     (as  salicylic  acid\ 
HJ        (CJOH 

!TT 
H,  amines         "         "     (as  anilin). 


H)       }  O,  quinones       "         "     (as  anthraquinone). 

The  aromatic  hydrocarbons  have  been  looked  upon  as 
bodies  of  too  simple  chemical  construction  to  exist  in  plants, 
and  this  is  certainly  true  of  the  lighter  portion  of  them.  The 
first  three  members  of  the  benzene  series  are  not  found  in  the 
vegetable  kingdom,  and  the  fourth,  cumene,  or  trimethylben- 
zene,  has  been  reported  found  only  in  Roman  cummin  oil.  But 
the  fifth  member  of  the  series,  cymene,  or  tetramethylbenzene  — 
a  body  having  the  molecular  weight  134  and  hence  in  vapor  67 
times  heavier  than  its  bulk  of  hydrogen  —  a  liquid  closely  ap- 
proaching both  in  composition  and  in  properties  to  turpentine 


Appendix.  55 

oil — is,  in  its  various  isomers,  distributed  among  plants  to  an  ex- 
tent not  fully  understood.  It  has  generally  been  put  down  as 
more  especially  an  educt  of  three  plants,  cuminium  cyminium 
(cummin)  and  cicuta  virosa  (water  hemlock),  of  the  umbellif- 
erse,  and  thymus  vulgaris3,  of  the  mint  family  ;  also  sometimes 
of  a  fourth,  ammi  copticum.  But  a  large  number  of  the  volatile 
oils  of  plants  contain  hydrocarbons  of  the  composition  C10H14, 
more  and  more  of  which  are  found  by  chemical  treatment  to 
yield  aromatic  products  and  almost  certainly  to  be  built  upon  the 
benzene  nucleus  and  to  fulfil  the  character  of  "cymenes." 
Eucalyptus  globulus,  the  Australian  fever  tree,  which  has  re- 
ceived much  attention  of  late  years,  contains  a  cymene  as  well  as 
a  terpene. 

Now  there  appears  to  be  only  a  short  step  in  composition 
between  cymene,  C10H14,  and  oil  of  turpentine,  C10H16,  which 
is  found  in  the  coniferous  trees,  but  this  short  step  suffices  to 
throw  oil  of  turpentine  out  of  the  homologous  series  of  aromatic 
hydrocarbons.  Now  isomeric  with  turpentine  oil  proper  are 
"  the  terpenes"  generally,  including  the  essential  oils  of  apricot, 
bergamot,  birch,  camomile,  caraway,  cloves,  cubeb,  elemi,  hop, 
juniper,  lavender,  lemon,  orange,  parsely,  pepper,  savin,  spike, 
tolu,  thyme,  and  an  indefinite  number  not  named  or  not  brought 
to  notice.  In  fact,  a  large  proportion,  probably  a  majority,  of 
essential  oils  contain  terpenes,  generally  with  other  essential  oil 
constituents.  To  present  some  approximate  indication  of  the 
extent  of  distribution  of  the  volatile  oils  altogether,  a  count  has 
been  made  of  the  number  of  plants  reported  to  contain  volatile 
oils  in  the  tabular  summary  of  plant  constituents  given  as  the 
Second  Part  of  Wittstein's  Chemischen  Analyse  von  Pflanzen 
und  Pflanzentheilen  (1867).  This  summary  includes  576  plants 
in  114  natural  orders.  Among  these,  essential  oils  are  reported 
in  156  or  27  per  cent,  of  the  plants,  and  in  45  or  39  per  cent,  of 
the  families.3 


(2)  C.  B.  A.  WRIGHT,  Jour.  Chem.  Soc., 

(3)  Of  the  natural  orders,  the  Labiatse  had  the  largest  number  of  plants 
containing  volatile  oils  (13  p.  c.  of  all);  the  Umbelliferse  the  next  largest  num- 
ber; the  Synantheriee  next,  and  the  Myristicese  next  (6  p.  c.  of  all). 


J><5  -Appendix. 

Oil  of  turpentine  and  its  numerous  isomers  have  mostly 
been  placed,  unclassified,  among  "  the  vegetable  substances  little 
known,"  but  there  is  a  beginning  that  promises  to  draw  them 
into  the  aromatic  group  and  assign  them  graphical  formulae  of 
the  the  hexagonal  type.  In  1872,  A.  Oppenheim  reported  to 
the  German  Chemical  Society  an  investigation  at  the  Berlin 
Laboratory4  on  the  production  of  a  cymene  from  oil  of  turpen- 
tine by  abstraction  of  hydrogen  (cymene  dibromide  being  heated 
with  anilin).  As  a  result  of  his  research  the  investigator  gives 
this  graphical  formula  for  turpentine  oil :  Here  one  of  the  carbon 
(CH8)  atoms  of  the  ring  has  been  loosened 

|  and  displaced  by  the  triad  CH,  giving 

the  adjacent  carbon  atom  only  one  line 
//        ^  of  connection  in  the  ring  and  two  out- 

H  —  C  C—  H     s^e  bonds,  so  that  four  carbon  atoms 

I  II  carry  five  of  hydrogen.     The  remain - 

TT     __A  p rr 

ing  two  points   of    the  hexagon  have 

\        /  taken  methyl  (CH3)  instead  of  hydro- 

(CH)  gen  and  one  of  these  methyl  molecules 

has  methyl  again  substituted  for  two  of 

H3)— (C  H3      itg   hydrogen   atoms<      Laterj   Oppen- 

heim reports  the  formation  of  cymene  from  the  terpene  of  cum- 
min oil5  and  offers  other  confirmations.  Kekule  has  since 
traced  relations  between  cymene  and  camphor  (the  immediate 
oxidate  of  a  terpene),  C10H16O,  from  which  he  presents  a 
graphical  formula.  Kekule  confirms  the  relationship  between 
cymene  and  the  terpenes,  using  iodine  instead  of  bromine,  and 
accepts  Oppenheim's  conclusions.6 

Graebe  has  dissented  from  the  view  that  turpentine  oil  is  of 
the  aromatic  type,  although  he  finds  a  relation  between  the  ter- 
pene in  wormseed  oil  and  cymene.7  The  conclusions  of  Oppen- 
heim are  mostly  confirmed  and  extended  by  the  labors  of  C.  R.  A. 

(4)  Berichte  der  deutschen  cJiemischen  Gesellschaft,  V.,  94. 

(5)  Berichte  d.  d.  chem.  Gesell.,  v,  628 ;  vi.,  915. 

(6)  Bericht.  d.  deut.  chem.  Gesell.,  vi.,  437:  Jour.  Chem.  Soc.,  1873,  889. 

(7)  Deut.  chem.  Ges.  Ber.t  v.,  677. 


Appendix.  57 

Wright  with  oils  of  lemon,  orange  and  nutmeg,  reported  to  the 
London  Chemical  Society,  in  i873.8  ^  seems,  then,  strongly 
probable,  if  not  yet  fully  established,  that  the  terpenes,  extend- 
ing as  they  do  widely  through  the  vegetable  kingdom,  are  all 
built  upon  the  benzene  nucleus,  being,  however,  somewhat  com- 
plex extensions  of  that  nucleus. 

From  this  standpoint,  too  recent  to  be  secure,  no  small 
share  of  the  most  simple  carbon  compounds  which  plants  con- 
tain— those  destitute  of  oxygen  and  nitrogen — belong  to  the  aro- 
matic group.  It  has  long  been  well  known  that  plants  contain 
oxidized  aromatic  compounds  very  closely  related  to  hydrocar- 
bons, so  that  the  latter  are  easily  obtained  from  plant  constitu- 
ents. Benzene  itself  took  its  name  from  the  abundant  educt  ben- 
zoic  acid,  from  which  Mitscherlich  first  obtained  it  in  1834,  by 
heating  with  lime  or  by  stronger  heat  with  iron.  It  is  obtained 
by  dry  distillation  or  by  more  gentle  treatment  from  the  most  of 
the  aromatic  compounds,  and  by  harsher  methods  from  bodies 
not  built  upon  it ;  having  been  discovered  by  Faraday  in  1825 
among  the  vapors  distilled  at  a  high  temperature  from  fats. 
Toluene  was  obtained  by  Deville,  who  first  examined  it  and 
named  it,  by  distilling  Tolu  balsam  ;  and  it  is  obtained  with  es- 
pecial ease  by  the  moderate  action  of  heat  upon  a  large  number 
of  resins — this  being  one  of  the  many  indications  that  most 
resins  contain  the  aromatic  nucleus.  Xylene  is  also  easily  ob- 
tained from  resins.  The  reverse  of  these  transformations,  the 
constant  production  of  resins  from  terpenes  by  atmospheric  ox- 
idation in  balsams  and  turpentines,  will  require  mention  further 
on.  And  the  manufacture  of  aromatic  hydrocarbons,  on  the 
large  scale,  from  coal,  will  be  noticed  with  the  methods  of  pro- 
duction from  inorganic  sources. 

After  the  hydrocarbons,  we  next  inquire  as  to  the  distribu- 
tion of  the  oxidized  products  of  the  aromatic  group  :  phenols, 
acids,  aldehydes,  etc. 

(8)  Jour.  Qhem.  8oc.,  xi.,  686-701. 


58  -Appendix. 

The  phenols   are  formed   by  substitution   of  OH  for   H  at- 

tached  directly  to  the  C  of  the  ring.     The  first  phenol,  known 

......    .  as  purest  grade  of  carbolic  acid,  is  obtained 

by  gentle  decomposition  of  many  plant  con- 
'•;  stituents.        Cymophenol,    C10Hi;}OH,     is 

found  in  the  oil  of  thyme,  from  the  Gym- 
nospermse.  Of  the  diatomic  phenols,  pyro- 
catechin,  C6H4(OH)2,  is  readily  obtained 
from  tannins  by  distillation  and  exists  ready 
'•••'  —  OH  formed  in  Ampelopsis  Hederacea.  Creo- 

sote, obtained  by  destructive  distillation  of  many  bodies,  con- 
tains two  homologous  phenols,  diatomic  and  triatomic,  each 
bearing  methyl  : 

Guaiacol,  C7H8OS  =  C.H4 


CH, 
Creosol,  C8H10O3  =  C6H3     O.  CH8 

'      OH 

Pyrogallol  (pyrogallic  acid,  largely  used  as  a  deoxidizing  agent 
by  photographers)  is  a  triatomic  phenol,  C6H8(OH)8,  and  is 
readily  formed  from  tannins  and  from  gallic  acid  ;  while  its 
isomer,  phloroglucin,  is  obtained  from  resins  and  from  glucos- 
ides  by  heating  with  potassa. 

The  orcins,  isomers  of  C7H8O2,  substitutions  of  two  mole- 
cules of  hydroxyl  and  one  of  methyl  for  three  atoms  of  hydro- 
gen in  benzene,  are  found  ready  formed  in  lichens.  The  dyes 
archyl,  cudbear  and  persio  contain  orcins,  —  as  also  litmus,  from 
Leconora  Tartarea.  Aloes,  treated  with  potassa,  yields  orcins. 

And  now,  in  1872,  Schiff  ascribes  to  gallic  acid,  C7H6O5,  a 

rational   formula  consisting  of  the   introduc-  fr-JO 

I       1  OH 

tion    of    one   carboxyl    and    three    hydroxyl     _  u    I 

(^  B  HL  g  s 
molecules  in   place   of  four  of  the   hydrogen  i 


atoms  of  benzene.9     Farther,  he  presents  and  OH 

maintains  a  rational  formula  for  fermentable    tannic  acids,   the 
natural  source  of  gallic  acid.10     Having  at  last  synthesized   tan- 

(9)  Ann.  Chem.  Phar.,  clxiii,209;  Jour.  Cfiem.  Hoc.,  1872,  820. 

(10)  Jour.  Chem.  Soc.,  1872,  245,  1019,  1098,;'  1874,  2d7. 


•  Appendix.  '$g 

nic  acid  from  gallic  acid  by  working  in  accordance  with  his 
theory,  it  cannot  be  ignored.  Schiff  also  traces  a  very  inter- 
esting correspondence  between  the  astringent  acids  and  other 
aromatic  compounds,  in  the  bright  colors  which  great  numbers 
of  them  give  with  ferric  salts ;  the  most  familiar  instance  being 
that  of  ink,  and  instances  being  familiar  to  analysts,  in  the 
identification  of  phenol,  benzoic,  salicylic  and  cinnamic  acids, 
etc.  The  wide  distribution  of  the  tannins  gives  great  signifi- 
cance to  this  insight  into  their  construction.  Of  the  576  plants 
in  Wittstein's  summary,  35,  or  6  per  cent.,  are  given  as  contain- 
ing tannic  acids;  these  plants  being  found  in  17  per  cent,  of  the 
natural  orders. 

The  quinones  claim  attention  in  this  inquiry,  for  though 
they  are  not  found  in  plants  they  are  next  steps  to  plant  constit- 
uents. They  hold  oxygen  atoms  united  to  each  other,  as  before 
stated.  Ordinary  quinone,  C6H4(O2)",  is  easily  obtained  from 
the  quinic  acid  of  the  cinchonas  and  from  the  allied  caffeic  acid 
of  coffee, — being  in  each  case  a  means  of  recognition  in  analy- 
sis. Resins,  by  heat,  yield  umbelliferone,  an  isomer  of  quinone. 

The  quinone  of  anthracene  (the  triple-hexagon  nucleus)  is 
called  anthraquinone,  C14H8(O2)".  From  this,  by  displacing 
H2  with  fOH)3,  is  now  manufactured  dioxyanthraquinone,  the 
alizarin  of  madder,  as  hereafter  to  be  described.  Isomeric  with 
alizarin  is  the  chrysophanic  acid  found  in  rhubarb,  senna,  and 
the  wall  lichen  (parmelia  parietina).  Chrysammic  acid,  which 
is  formed  from  the  aloin  of  aloes  in  the  common  nitric  acid  test, 
also  from  the  chrysophanic  acid  of  rhubarb  in  the  same  way,  has 
the  composition  of  tetranitra-dioxy-anthraquinone,  C14H2 
(N02)'4(OH)'2(03)". 

Taking  next  the  acids  derived  from  the  benzene  nucleus, 
with  their  aldehydes  and  alcohols,  we  have  first  benzoic  acid  and 
bitter  almond  oil,  the  well-known  subjects  of  Liebig  and  Woh- 
ler's  first  advance  into  the  aromatic  group.  Always  classed 
with  these  are  salicylic,  cinnamic,  cuminic  and  anisic  acids, 
aldehydes  and  alcohols;  the  aldehydes  being  essential  oils  of 
plants  and  the  acids  being  the  products  of  the  natural  oxidation 


60  Appendix. 

of  the  aldehydes.  In  the  following  list,  each  dash  prefixed  indi- 
cates the  displacement  of  one  atom  of  hydrogen  from  benzene ',  C6H6, 
to  the  residue  of  which  the  additions  are  made.  Thus,  benzoic 

acid  is  C6H5  C  |  QH  etc.,  (the  H  of  OH  in  acids  being  re- 
placed by  metals,  forming  salts). 

Acid.         Aldehyde.       Alcohol. 

Benzoic  C  {  £TT  C  {  °    c  (  ** 

(OH 


OH          OH        OH 

f 
F 
OH 


Salicylic       \  C  { °w  _   _r  f  O  fl 


Cinnamic 
(Phenyl 


ic  )   C  |  O )  1  H 

[(C3H3y  —    [n 

-acrylic)  )   ( (C3H3)W  JO      O  (C.H,)'"      O 


Cuminic  )   (  fC3H7)' (C8H.)' (C.H.)' 

r!°  N 

(Phenyl-propylic)  )   (   '        °  \  OH  "        "  {  H     C  ]  H 

OH 


Anisic 


isic  -j 


Benzoic  acid 'is  accompanied  in  the  balsams, (13)  and  often 
complemented  by  cinnamic  acid.  It  is  formed  from  its  aldehyde, 
bitter  almond  oil,  by  exposure  of  the  latter  to  air.  It  is  now 
manufactured  from  the  naphthalin  of  coal  tar  (the  double  mole- 
cule benzene  before  described),  by  the  process  mentioned  farther 
on.  Benzoic  aldehyde  is  hardly  an  educt ;  being  a  product,  along 

(13)  Styrax  benzoin,  Myrospermum  toluiferum,  Myrospermum  perui- 
ferum,  Eunonymous  Europceus. 


^Appendix.  61 

with  hydrocyanic  acid  and  sugar,  in  the  natural  fermentation  of 
amygdalin  which  is  found  in  many  plants  of  the  almond  family. 

Salicylic  acid  does  not  exist  uncombined  in  plants,  that  the 
writer  is  aware,  but  as  methyl  salicylate  it  makes  the  principal  por- 
tion of  "  wintergreen  oil,"  from  Gaultheria  Procumbens  and 
Betula  Lenta  (sweet  birch)  and  occurs  in  great  purity  and  abund- 
ance in  Andromeda  Leschenaultii(14).  This  acid,  the  new  anti- 
septic, is  now  being  manufactured  on  the  large  scale  from 
carbolic  acid,  as  presently  to  be  described.  It  is  not  poisonous ; 
i%  gramme  doses  being  taken  without  apparent  ill  effect.  It 
prevents  most  fermentive  and  putrefactive  changes ;  including 
those,  like  the  sinapous  and  amygdalous,  which  are  not  depend- 
ent upon  an  organized  ferment,  as  well  as  the  alcoholic  and  lactic. 
One-tenth  per  cent,  prevents  grape  juice  from  fermenting,  and 
0.04  per  cent,  delays  the  souring  of  milk  36  hours  later  than 
when  the  milk  is  not  so  treated(15).  It  arrests  putrefactive 
changes,  as  well  as  fermentive.  Unlike  carbolic  acid,  its  anti- 
septic power  is  destroyed  by  alkalies.  The  methyl  salicyate  has 
been  has  been  to  some  extent  manufactured  for  use  instead  of 
natural  wintergreen  oil.  Salicylic  aldehyde  is  known  as  the  oil  of 
spircea,  found  in  "meadow  sweet"  and  "hardback."  It  is 
readily  obtained  by  fermentation  of  the  glucoside  salicin,  the 
bitter  substance  of  the  willow  and  poplar  and  found  with  its 
product  in  meadow  sweet.  Populin  and  Helicin  both  readily 
yield  salicin. 

Cinnamic  acid—  phenyl-acrylic — is  found  in  the  balsams; 
and  appears  when  its  aldehyde  cinnamon  oil  is  exposed  to  the  air. 
The  balsams  also  contain, — in  styrax,  cinnamic  alcohol,  cynnyl 
cinnamate  (C9H9C9H7O2),  and  cinnamene,  C8H8.  Cinnamate 
of  benzyl  (C7H7C9H7O2)  forms  a  large  part  of  Peru  balsam 
and  a  small  part  of  Tolu  balsam. 

Cuminic  aldehyde  is  found,  with  cymene,  in  cummin  oil 
(from  C.  Cyminium). 

(14)  BKOUGHTON:  Phar.Jour.,  Oct.  7,  1871. 

(15)  NEUBAUB:  KOLBE:  MULLEK:  Jour.  Ghent.  Soc.,  1875,  459,  460. 


62  ^Appendix. 

The  Anisic  series  is  closely  related  to  the  oil  of  anise  (Pim- 
pinella  Anisum  and  Illicium  A.). 

The  benzene  nucleus  has  not  been  traced  in  many  of  the 
alkaloids.  Atropia,  however,  yields  an  isomer  of  cinnamic  acid, 
and  it  is  conjectuial  that  other  alkaloids  of  the  Solanaceae  con- 
tain the  benzene  nucleus. 

In  the  Summary  of  Wittstein,  before  mentioned,  T2T6¥  or  22 
per  cent,  of  the  natural  orders  contain  aromatic  bodies — terpenes 
and  resins  not  being  included  as  such. 

After  this  slight  survey  of  the  constitution  and  natural  dis- 
tribution of  the  aromatic  bodies,  we  will  next  consider  what  has 
been  accomplished  in  their  artificial  synthesis. 

Benzene  itself,  it  will  be  observed,  is  a  polymer  of  acety- 
lene, C2H2.  And  by  heat,  in  a  bent  tube  over  mercury, 
acetylene  (13  times  denser  than  hydrogen)  is  transformed  into 
benzene  (39  times  denser  than  hydrogen).  Acetylene  is  formed, 
from  the  elements  carbon  and  hydrogen,  in  the  electric  arc, 
with  a  strong  battery  (one  of  40  or  50  Bunsen's  elements  giving 
100  c.c.  of  the  gas  per  minute(16).  Also  from  marsh  gas,  or 
from  carbon  disulphide  with  carbon  monoxide,  by  electric  dis- 
charge. 

Toluene  is  formed  from  benzene,  (i)  by  action  of  methyl 
iodide  and  sodium  (Fittig  and  Tollens),  (2)  by  marsh  gas  when 
both  it  and  the  benzene  are  nascent  (Berthelot)(17).  In  the  last 
reaction,  Xylene  and  Cumene  are  also  produced. 

In  these  and  other  ways  all  the  hydrocarbons  expressed  with 
the  single  hexagon  may  be  synthesized  from  benzene.  Naphtha- 
lene, of  the  double  hexagon,  is  formed  on  passing  toluene  through 
a  white-hot  tube  (Berthelot)(18). 

It  is  familiar  to  every  one  that  these  hydrocarbons,  with  the 
phenols  and  many  other  aromatic  compounds,  are  formed  every 
.day  in  every  town  from  coal,  by  distillation  at  ten  or  twelve  hun- 

(16)  BERTHEIA>T:  Compt.  Rend.,  IV,  640;  Watts'  Diet.,  1st  Sup.,  30,  31. 

(17)  C6H6+CH4=C7H8  +  H2. 

(18)  4C7H8=C10H8+3CCH6+3H2. 


^Appendix. 


dred  degrees  Fahrenheit,  and  this,  it  is  submitted,  is  organic 
synthesis.  Coal  is  a  very  simple  if  not  completely  mineralized 
mixture  of  carbon  with  bituminous  hydrocarbon,  and  it  seems  a 
misnomer  to  style  as  "  destructive  distillation"  the  formation  of 
the  aromatic  group  from  such  material.  It  is  formative  distilla- 
tion :  prolific  beyond  parallel  in  the  action  of  heat  upon  ele- 
ments. 

It  may  be  safely  stated  in  general  terms  that  the  formation 
of  the  aromatic  compounds,  from  the  elements,  outside  of  living 
bodies  is  assured.  And  there  are  now  at  least  four  aromatic  sub- 
stances manufactured  on  a  large  scale  from  coal-tar  ;  one  being 
anilin  and  its  homologues,  and  the  other  three  being  vegetable 
educts,  benzoic  acid,  alizarin,  and  salicylic  acid. 

The  manufacture  of  benzoic  acid  from  napthalin  is  carried 
on  through  two  steps,  namely  : 

1.  Oxidation,  by   hot  nitric  acid,   to   phthalic    and  oxalic 
acids.19 

2.  Removal  of   the  elements  of   carbonic  anhydride  from 
phthalic  acid,  by  heating  with  lime  in  a  close  vessel.20 

Successive  substitutions.* 


H 

H 

Si 

1 

1 
i 

C 

C 

4 

'        \ 

'"*,     ^ 

H-C 

C 

C 

—  H 

1 

II 

1 

H-C 

C 

C 

—  H 

'* 

t      /     " 

\.!;-  s 



c 

c 

1 

1 

H 

"VnnVitlinli 

n 

OH 


— H 
— C 


(O 


OH 


Phthalic  acid.          Benzoic  acid. 

In  the  manufacture  of  alizarin  from  anthracene,  there  is : 
i.  Oxidation  to  anthraquinone. 

(19)  CJOH8+8O=C8H6O4  +  H2C,,04. 

(20)  C8H604=C7H602 


*  One  side  of  the  double  ring  is  broken  up;  its  four  points  of  CH  being 
oxidized  to  four  serni-molecules  of  carboxyl,  two  of  which  enter  into  the 
phthalic  acid,  the  other  two  uniting  as  oxalic  acid. 


64  Appendix. 

2.   Farther  oxidation  to  dioxyanthraquinone.21 


H  

-C                C  

bucccesstve  bubstitmons. 

H                 S03H      OK      OH 

4 

^    \      //     \ 

H-C 

c           c- 

H                 SO3H      OK      OH 

1 
H-C 

\ 

II          1 
c           c    . 

>          /      X       ^      \ 

C                C              C—     H 

0 

1                  1               II 
H                C              C-     H 

1 
O 

1     \\   / 
H     C 

1 
H 

•n 

Anthracene,  C14H10. 

Anthraquinone,  C14H8O2. 


Dioxyanthraquinone  or  Alizarin,  C14H6(OH)2O3. 


The  history  of  this  triumph  may  be  indicated  as  follows  :22 


(21)  First,     C14H10+3O=C,4H8O2+H2O. 

Second,  C14H8O2+2H2S04=C14H6(HSO3)2O2-f-2H2O. 


[2K2SO3-f-4H2O. 
Cl4H6(OK)202-f-2HCl=C14H6(OH)2O2+2KCl. 

(22)  Artificial  prodcution  of  Alizarin:    ROSCOE:   Chem.  News,  xxi.,  185; 
Amer.  Reprint,  p.  332  (1870). 


Appendix.  6$ 

Investigation  of  alizarin  of  madder — Schunck 1848 

of  anthracene   Anderson 1862 

of  the  quinones   Graebe 1 868 

Formation  of  anthracene  from  alizarin,  Graebe  and  Lieber- 

man 1868 

of  alizarin  from  anthracene,  Graebe  and  Lieber- 

man 1 869 

Purpurin,  the  less  important  color  compound  of  madder, 
having  the  ultimate  composition  of  trioxyanthraquinone,  is  this 
year  reported  to  be  synthesized  from  alizarin.23 

A  ton  of  alizarin  is  saved  from  about  2,000  tons  of  coal  or 
1 60  tons  of  coal  tar.  By  this  saving,  large  agricultural  districts 
in  Holland  and  Alsace  and  in  Asia  Minor,  employed  hitherto  in 
producing  color,  can  be  devoted  to  the  production  of  food. 

The  production  of  salicylic  acid  from  phenol,  through  action 
of  carbonic  anhydride,  is  simply  a  direct  synthesis :  a  molecule 
of  carboxyl  (CO3H)  being  substituted  for  one  of  the  hydrogen 
atoms  of  phenol.  That  is,  the  elements  of  a  molecule  of  car- 
bonic acid  gas,  CO2,  are  added  to  the  elements  of  a  molecule  of 
phenol,  C6H6O,  to  form  a  molecule  of  salicylic  acid,  C7H6O3. 
H 


\ 


H-C 

I 
H-C 


C-        H 

II 

c-    :  H 


c 

I 

OH 
Phenol,  C6H60. 


C   [OH 


Salicylic  acid,  C7H6O3. 


(23)  LALANDE:  Oompt.  Rend;  Ixxix,  669;  in  Jour.  Chem.  Soc.,  1875,  69. 
ROSENTIEHL:  Oompt.  Rend.,  Ixxix,  764;  in  Jour.  Chem.  8oc.,  1874,373. 

5 


66  Appendix. 

This  change  was  sometime  since  effected  by  Prof.  Kolhe, 
through  the  action  of  carbonic  acid  gas  on  phenol  in  presence  of 
sodium.  Last  year  he  gave  preliminary  notice  of  his  present 
method,  in  which  soda  at  elevated  temperatures  takes  the  place  of 
metallic  sodium,  and  early  in  the  present  year  the  manufacture  of 
salicylic  acid  from  carbolic  acid  and  sal  soda  by  use  of  carbonic 
acid  gas  commenced  at  Leipsic  (**). 

It  is  singular  that  the  reverse  of  this  change,  the  manufacture 
of  pure  carbolic  acid  from  the  salicylic  acid  of  wintergreen  oil, 
was  reported  on  by  Broughton,  the  quinologist  of  the  British 
Government  in  India,  in  1871,  as  possibly  a  remunerative  enter- 
prise, at  least  "in  case  of  war  "  or  other  occasion  of  increase  in 
the  English  price.  The  oil  was  obtained  from  the  Andromeda 
Leschenaultii,  which  grows  in  great  abundance  on  the  Neilgherry 
Hills  C25). 

These  few  instances  of  artificial  synthesis  in  the  aromatic 
group  have  acquired  prominence  on  account  of  their  relations  to 
wealth  and  industry;  but  instances  of  almost  equal  scientific  im- 
portance are  thickly  spread  among  the  reports  of  every  month. 

The  natural  production  of  aromatic  bodies  does  not  wholly 
elude  chemical  investigation.  Some  of  the  chemical  changes  in 
the  aromatic  constituents  of  the  balsams  are  striking  illustrations 
of  the  well  known  characteristics  of  these  bodies.  Resins  are 
produced  from  the  terpene  and  cymene  oils  by  atmospheric  oxi- 
dation; and  benzoic  and  cinnamic  acids  are  produced  from  the 
aldehyde,  alcohol,  and  ether  of  the  cinnamic  series,  by  oxida- 
tion ;  and  without  doubt  these  oxidations  occur  within  coniferous 
trees,  as  well  as  more  generally  after  exudation  from  the  bark, 
and  in  the  same  way  in  the  bottle  on  the  shelf  where  light  falls. 
As  changes  of  oxidation,  these  are  not  representative  of  the 
vegetable  kingdom;  nevertheless  they  are  in  the  direction  of 
greater  complexity  of  chemical  structure. 

(24)  KOL.BE:  J.pr.  Ch.  [2]  viii,  41;  in  Jour.  Chem.  tfoc.,  1874,  373. 

(25)  Phar.  Jour,  and  Trans.  Oct.  7, 1871. 


Appendix.  6j 

The  production  of  resins  from  terpene  and  cymene  oils,  now 
that  these  are  seen  to  be  aromatic  hydrocarbons,  explains  the 
ease  with  which  other  aromatic  bodies  (benzene,  toluene,  phenol, 
etc.)  are  obtained  from  resins, — for  it  can  now  be  more  than  sur- 
mised that  in  this  round  of  changes  the  benzene  ring  is  never 
broken. 

In  the  summary  of  Wittstein,  of  the  114  natural  orders,  28 
are  reported  to  contain  resins;  of  these  28  orders,  16  contain 
essential  oils  with  the  resins  and  12  do  not.  On  the  other  hand, 
there  are  45  orders  containing  volatile  oils,  29  of  them  not  being 
reported  as  containing  resins.  Of  the  26  orders  given  as  furnish- 
ing aromatic  bodies  other  than  resins  and  oils,  one-half  have 
resins. 

To  enter  fully  into  an  inquiry  as  to  the  chemical  history  of 
the  aromatic  bodies  in  plants  would  be  to  overstep  the  limits  of 
this  paper.  Indeed,  it  may  be  thought  that  such  an  inquiry 
would  overstep  the  present  limits  of  science.  Let  us  consider 
what  preparation  we  have  and  what  foundation  we  have  for  enter- 
ing upon  such  an  inquiry.' 

In  the  first  place,  we  have  some  measure  of  acquaintance 
with  the  structure  (or  to  be  more  modest,  the  chemical  charac- 
ter) of  aromatic  compounds.  We  know  something  as  to  what  a 
given  aromatic  substance  can  be  formed  from,  and  what  can  be 
formed  from  it,  and  the  conditions  needed  in  both  cases.  This 
knowledge  is  demonstrated  by  the  large  number  of  syntheses 
which  chemical  science  has  effected  in  the  aromatic  group.  But 
we  must  be  cautious  about  assuming  that  substances  producible 
in  the  laboratory  in  a  certain  way  must  needs  be  formed  in  the 
plant  in  the  same  way.  We  must  recollect  that  we  have  already 
often  observed  that  a  given  chemical  production  may  be  effected 
in  different  ways.  There  are,  well  known,  at  least  three  differ- 
ent ways  of  bringing  gallic  acid  out  of  gallotannic  acid :  fer- 
mentation by  the  natural  ferment,  "fermentation"  by  boiling, 
and  oxidation.  Bruise  a  bitter  almond  kernel  with  water,  and 
by  reason  of  the  emulsin  present,  bitter  almond  oil  and  prussic 
acid  arise  in  vapor  and  the  solutir»n  becomes  sweet  with  glucose. 


68  Appendix. 

Again,  boil  the  almond  pulp  with  dilute  sulphuric  acid,  and  the 
bitter  almond  oil  and  prussic  acid  and  glucose  appear  with  an- 
other product,  formic  acid.  Vinegar  may  be  rapidly  formed 
from  alcohol,  in  the  air,  (i)  when  at  ordinary  temperature  there 
is  the  contact  of  a  certain  species  of  living  cells;  (2)  when, 
without  cells,  there  is  platinum  black  present;  (3) when,  without 
cells  or  porous  body,  the  oxygen  is  nascent ;  the  change  being 
in  each  instance  through  aldehyde  by  the  same  equation.  Now, 
if  the  styrax  benzoin  contained  naphthalin,  it  would  not  cer- 
tainly follow  that  the  benzoic  acid  of  the  plant  was  formed  from 
this  naphthalin,  through  phthalic  acid,  because  such  is  the  case 
in  the  factory. 

In  the  second  place,  as  foundation  for  a  study  of  the  chem- 
ical history  of  aromatic  bodies  in  plants,  we  have  but  a  very 
limited  knowledge  of  the  constituents  of  plants  in  general.  The 
analytical  work  in  organic  chemistry  is  behind  the  synthetical 
work.  The  proximate  analysis  of  plants  needs  to  be  made  as 
thorough  as  possible :  no  constituent  can  be  assumed  to  be  unim- 
portant. As  an  illustration,  it  was  stated  above  that  in  a  certain 
summary  of  plant  constituents,  of  45  orders  reported  to  contain 
volatile  oils,  29  were  not  reported  to  contain  resins.  Consider- 
ing the  known  methods  of  analysis  and  the  ordinary  purposes  of 
analysis,  the  question  arises,  how  many  of  the  plants  analyzed  in 
these  29  orders  do  nevertheless  contain  resins  ?  And,  taking  a 
given  plant  known  to  contain  both  resin  and  volatile  oil,  what 
results  might  not  come  from  a  series  of  careful  quantitative 
analyses  of  the  plant  in  different  stages  of  its  growth  and  of  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  plant?  Before  the  natural  formation  of 
carbon  compounds  can  be  traced,  and  before  generalizations  as 
to  nature's  chemical  methods  can  be  attained,  an  enormous 
amount  of  work  has  to  be  done. 

In  this  discussion,  it  is  of  course  taken  for  granted  that  the 
molecules  of  matter  are  formed  and  conserved  by  chemism  ;  as  truly 
in  the  plant  as  in  the  rock.  Chemism  may  be,  as  has  been  held, 
due  to  an  attractive  force  ;  or  it  may  be  due  to  harmonies  and  co- 
ordinations of  atomic  motion,  rotatory  or  oscillatory ;  molecules 


Appendix.  6g 

may  be  plane  or  solid  forms,  in  gaseous  or  solid  state ;  and  it 
may  be  that  we  have  in  no  case  attained  any  correct  conception 
as  to  what  causes  molecular  combination ;  but,  none  the  less,  the 
effects  we  know,  and  their  consummate  order  we  know  under  the 
name  of  chemical  law.  For  myself,  this  is  quite  enough.  I  have 
a  profound  sense  that  the  cause  of  chemical  action  is  beyond  the 
comprehension  of  man  and  is  near  to  the  hand  of  God.  I  do 
not  see  that  the  chemist  can  assume  any  more  responsibility  for 
the  construction  of  molecules  in  the  test-tube  than  can  the  biolo- 
gist for  the  growth  of  cells  under  the  microscope.  If  we  could 
see  and  measure  the  molecules,  we  should  doubtless  be  no  nearer 
the  comprehension  of  their  formation  than  the  biologist  is  to  the 
formation  of  cells  under  his  inspection.  But  whatever  be  the 
scope  of  the  human  mind  in  chemical  science,  it  is  a  science  that 
embraces  all  that  we  can  know  of  the  composition  of  matter. 
In  living  tissue,  the  elements  (which  in  mixture  would  be  but 
dust  and  gases)  are  combined  into  certain  kinds  of  matter,  and 
this  combination  (with  transformation)  fulfills  the  definition  of 
chemical  union. 

In  limitation,  it  hardly  need  be  remarked  that  when  chem- 
ical action  has  formed  the  molecule  it  can  do  no  more :  it  cannot 
make  the  cell,  or  any  other  structure  or  coherent  mass  formed  of 
molecules,  any  more  than  the  cell-making  action  can  make  the 
molecule.  Now,  as  cohesion  and  as  heat  and  other  actions  im- 
pel or  retard  or  modify  chemical  action,  it  seems  almost  certain 
to  be  true  that  the  action  of  cell  organization  must  impel  or  re- 
tard or  modify  chemical  action.  We  see  that  red-hot  charcoal 
will,  with  oxygen,  form  carbonic  anhydride,  while  cold  charcoal 
will  not :  the  heat  is  indispensable,  but  we  do  not  conceive  the 
carbonic  anhydride  to  be  a  calorific  compound.  It  is  a  chemical 
compound,  whatever  non-chemical  actions  are  essential  to  its  for- 
mation. And,  if  it  should  ever  be  settled  that  certain  substances 
can  only  be  formed  in  living  cells,  it  is  submitted  that  these  sub- 
stances must  none  the  less  be  accepted  and  studied  as  chemical 
products. 


jo  Appendix. 


DR.  COCKER'S  ABSTRACT  OF  PAPER  ON  LIFE. 

[Not  furnished  to  the  Committee  in  time  for  publication.] 


EXTRACTS  FROM,  AND   A  SUMMARY  OF,  A   PAPER 
"ON  LIFE." 


BY    E.    C.    SEAMAN. 
[Read  before  the  Association  December  4th,  1875.] 

Dr.  Beale  inquires,  what  is  life  ?  Very  few  intelligent  per- 
sons will  mistake  the  phenomena  of  life — or  the  difference  be- 
tween inanimate  and  living  matter;  and  yet  it  is  not  easy  to 
give  a  definition  of  life,  that  will  be  satisfactory  to  all  the  schools 
of  physiology  and  biology.  In  my  opinion  there  is  in  the  ma- 
terial world,  a  vital  element,  separate  and  distinct  from  all  the 
other  elements  of  nature — which  is  an  organizing  principle ,  and  con- 
stitutes the  essence  of  life,  and  causes  the  internal  action  of  liv- 
ing organisms. 

The  definitions  of  life  generally  given  by  authors,  include 
phenomena  only, — which  are  only  the  effects  of  the  action  of 
life,  operating  through  the  machinery  of  a  living  organism.  My 
definition  of  life  is,  that  it  is  the  power  of  a  vital  organizing  ele- 
ment, which  forms  and  maintains  living  organisms — which  pro- 
duces internal  action — including  in  animals,  digestion  and  ab- 
sorption, assimilation  and  secretion,  nutrition  and  reproduction. 

The  whole  action  of  the  animal  economy,  including  diges- 
tion and  secretion,  assimilation  and  nutrition,  and  also  the  cir- 
culation of  the  blood,  is  carried  on  antagonistically  to  chemical 
action,  as  well  as  to  gravitation. 


Appendix.  71 

The  vital  element  must  float  in  the  gastric  juice  and  in  the 
blood,  in  the  chyle  and  in  the  nervous  fluid,  and  pervade  the 
flesh  and  all  the  solids  of  the  living  organism.  When  particles 
cease  to  be  animated  with  the  vital  element,  they  are  soon  se- 
creted, and  eventually  excreted  from  the  system ;  and  if  any  ob- 
struction be  offered  to  their  secretion  or  excretion,  they  are 
turned  into  other  chanels,  and  either  inflammation,  or  an  ab- 
normal formation  is  the  result. 

The  phenomena  of  life  indicate  that  the  vital  element  is 
very  subtle  imponderable  matter,  in  some  respects  similar  to 
caloric  and  electricity — except  that  it  has  no  more  mobility  than 
oxygen,  or  any  other  gas.  Like  caloric  and  electricity,  it  may 
be  supposed  to  float  in  the  atmosphere  and  in  the  ocean,  and  to 
pervade  the  crust  of  the  earth ;  to  operate  upon,  unite,  and  to 
form  into  germs  and  organisms,  atoms  of  matter  in  the  atmos- 
phere, in  the  earth,  and  in  the  waters  upon  the  earth.  It  is  the 
organizing  principle  and  the  cause  of  the  formation  of  the 
germs,  and  of  the  development  of  plants  and  animals  de  novo, 
and  without  parentage,  in  water,  at  the  bottom  of  the  ocean, 
and  upon  newly  formed  islands. 

I  regard  as  self-evident  truths, — ist,  That  force  is  an  inher- 
ent property  of  substance,  and  cannot  exist  independent  of  sub- 
stance. 

2d,  That  no  combination  of  elements  can  produce  a  force 
not  inherent  in  any  of  the  elements  themselves. 

3d,  That  the  vital  force,  not  being  the  subject  of  chemical 
analysis,  must  be  an  inherent  property  of  an  element  of  matter 
unknown  to  the  chemist. 

Prof.  Tyndall  and  the  advocates  of  the  dynamical  school  of 
scientists,  deny  the  existence  of  a  vital  element,  and  maintain 
that  the  vital  force  is  identical  with  what  they  call  molecular 
force.  In  my  view,  it  is  a  pure  assumption,  and  imaginary,  to 
suppose  that  there  is  any  such  thing  as  a  molecular  force  dis- 
tinct from,  or  other  than,  the  chemical  and  physical  forces  of 
the  elements  of  which  the  molecules  are  composed. 

Dr.  John  Hunter  said,  "  The  living  principle  of  the  blood 
is  the  materia  vita  diffusa,  of  which  every  part  of  an  animal  has 


72  Appendix-. 

its  portion.     It  is  diffused  through   the  whole  solids  and  fluids, 
making  a  necessary  part  of  them." 

In  Dr.  Prout's  Bridgwater  Treatise  (p  493),  he  says  :  "  The 
stomach  must  have  the  power  of  organizing  and  vitalizing  the 
different  alimentary  substances.  It  is  impossible  to  imagine  that 
the  agency  of  the  stomach  can  be  chemical.  This  agency  is 
vital,  and  its  nature  is  unknown." 

Dr.  Pritchard  says  :  "  This  vital  principle  assumes  the  charac- 
ter of  a  plastic  or  formative  power.  It  presides  over  and  sets  in 
action  the  different  processes  by  which  growth  and  organization 
are  effected  ;  and  gives  form  and  modification  to  the  component 
parts  of  the  animal  and  vegetable  body,  and  contributes,  by  a 
preserving  influence  to  the  maintenance  of  its  existence,  for  a  def- 
inite portion  of  time." 

The  vital  element  acts  antagonistically  to  the  forces  of  grav- 
ity— it  must  therefore  be  imponderable.  The  vital  force  carries 
the  sap  of  trees  and  plants,  and  the  blood  of  animals,  upwards — 
contrary  to  the  forces  of  gravity  inherent  in  the  ponderable  ele- 
ments of  matter;  and  hence  living  organisms  must  have,  in  their 
composition,  some  imponderable  element,  unknown  to  the 
chemist. 

Prof.  Nicholson,  of  the  University  of  Toronto,  says,  in  his 
Biology,  "  It  appears  in  the  highest  degree  probable,  that  every 
vital  action  has  in  it  something  which  is  not  merely  physical  and 
chemical,  but  which  is  conditioned  by  an  unknown  force — 
higher  in  its  nature  and  distinct  in  kind,  as  compared  with  all 
other  forces.  The  presence  of  this  vital  force  may  be  recog- 
nized even  in  the  simplest  phenomena  of  nutrition  ;  and  no  at- 
tempt has  hitherto  been  made  to  explain  the  phenomena  of  repro- 
duction, by  the  working  of  any  known  physical  or  chemical 
force." 

Dr.  Beale  of  London  says,  "  Facts  and  observations  on 
things  living,  support  the  idea  of  vitality,  and  are  not  favorable 
to  any  mechanical  or  chemical  hypothesis  of  life  yet  proposed." 

The  material  organism  of  animals  is  composed  of  elements 
of  matter  known  to  the  chemist  \  but  the  vitalists  hold  that  in 


Appendix.  75 

addition  to  the  chemical  elements,  there  is  a  vital  element,  which 
pervades  the  whole  organism,  and  works  the  machinery  of  life ; 
that  the  chemical  elements  constitute  only  the  frame  work  of  the 
living  organism,  which  cannot  operate  itself  without  a  motive 
power ;  and  that  the  vital  force  inherent  in  a  vital  element,  con- 
stitutes the  motive  power,  which  works  the  machinery  of  the 
animal  economy — the  mind  constituting  the  governing  power 
which  works  the  muscles,  and  produces  voluntary  action. 

Vital  action  produces  cells  and  tubes  for  the  circulation  of 
the  fluids,  which  form  and  support  animal  and  vegetable  organ- 
isms. It  produces  the  peculiar  organic  forms,  of  which  cells  and 
tubes  and  fibrous  matter  form  prominent  parts.  On  the  con- 
trary, chemical  action  never  produces  either  cells,  tubes,  or 
fibers,  nor  organisms  of  any  kind,  having  the  machinery  neces- 
sary for  internal  action,  nutrition,  and  reproduction. 

Chemical  compounds,  whether  liquids,  solids,  or  gasses, 
have  a  composition  nearly  uniform  in  all  their  parts,  and  never 
have  anything  like  cells,  tubes  or  fibrous  organs.  Their  solids 
are  generally  composed  of  crystals,  like  the  crystals  of  common 
salt.  Chemical  compounds  also  increase  from  the  outside — by 
the  addition  of  other  crystals  to  the  mass.  On  the  contrary,  liv- 
ing organisms  always  increase  from  the  inside — the  food  being 
received  internally,  and  digested,  absorbed,  secreted,  and  con- 
veyed in  a  liquid  form,  through  tubes  and  cells  to  the  proper 
places  of  deposite,  to  nourish  the  system.  The  difference  in 
formation  and  action  indicates  that  there  must  be  elements  in  one 
not  contained  in  the  other. 

The  vital  theory  was  presented  in  a  more  complete,  clear  and 
distinct  form,  by  Dr.  Hunter  of  England,  the  latter  part  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  than  ever  before.  My  reading  indicates  that 
the  vital  theory,  in  some  of  its  forms,  was  generally  accepted  by 
Physicians  and  Physiologists,  until  after  the  publication  of  Baron 
Li'ebig's  Oganic  Chemistry  ;  and  that  it  has  been  received  ever 
since,  and  is  still  received  as  the  true  theory  of  life,  by  Physiolo- 
gists of  the  first  rank.  Dr.  Beale  does  not  stand  alone  in  affirm- 
ing its  soundness. 


74  Appendix. 


ON  SPONTANEOUS  GENERATION. 

EXTRACTS  FROM,  AND    SUMMARY  OF,  A  PAPER    READ  BEFORE    THE  ASSOCIA- 
TION, 

BY    E.    C.    SEAMAN. 

Prof.  Dunster,  in  his  paper  on  the  History  of  Spontaneous 
Generation,  read  before  the  Association  March  4th,  gave  an 
account  of  many  changes  of  opinion  among  learned  men  and 
scientists  upon  the  subject ;  and  stated  many  facts  and  thories, 
and  referred  to  numerous  experiments,  made  by  persons  investi- 
gating such  questions— both  in  Europe  and  America ;  all  of 
which  was  and  is  valuable  as  well  as  interesting,  to  inquir- 
ers into  such  questions.  But  I  must  be  allowed  to  ex- 
press my  dissent  from  the  deductions  and  conclus- 
ions of  the  Professor.  He  informs  us  that  the 
French  Academy,  some  years  since,  referred  the  question 
of  spontaneous  generation,  and  numerous  experiments  of  M. 
Pouchet  in  support  of  it,  and  of  M.  Pasteur  against  it,  to  a  com- 
mittee, which,  after  a  long  and  careful  examination,  reported, 
that  the  experiments  apparently  proving  the  truth  of  the  theory 
were  not  made  with  due  care  and  proper  precautions,  and  there- 
fore were  not  reliable ;  and  that  those  of  M.  Pasteur  tending  to 
disprove  it,  were  reliable ;  and  Prof.  Dunster  insists  that  the 
committee  virtually  settled  the  matter,  as  a  scientific  question ; 
and  that  it  should  now  be  considered  as  settled  by  science  and 
scientists,  against  the  theory. 

During  a  period  of  more  than  2,000  years,  from  the  time  of 
Aristotle  to  sometime  in  the  i8th  century,  the  doctrine  of  spon- 
taneous generation  was  generally  received  in  Europe  as  a  truth, 
beyond  all  dispute.  During  the  last  hundred  and  fifty  years  vari- 
ous theories  have  been  conceived  and  presented,  to  account  for 
the  origin  of  the  lower  orders  of  animal  and  vegetable  organ- 
isms ;  and  so  far  from  the  question  being  settled  by  scientific  in- 


Appendix. 

vestigations  and  scientists,  there  never  was  any  previous  period  in 
the  world's  history,  when  reading  and  learned  men  and  scientists 
were  so  much  divided  in  opinion,  and  embraced  so  many  con- 
flicting theories  upon  the  subject  of  life  and  its  origin,  as  they  do 
to-day. 

In  most  of  the  experiments  made  and  reported  by  Pouchet, 
Wyman,  Bastian,  and  others,  animal  life  was  developed  from 
water  and  vegetable  infusions,  which  had  been  heated  to  the 
boiling  point,  hermetically  sealed  in  glass  jars,  and  exposed  for 
some  time  in  a  warm  atmosphere.  Pasteur  boiled  vegetable  in- 
fusions from  4  to  6  hours,  sealed  and  exposed  them  in  a  similar 
manner,  and  no  animal  organisms  were  developed. 

Heat  and  water  are  the  great  solvents  of  nature.  Steam  and 
hot  water  not  only  destroy  life,  but  soon  dissolve  all  animal 
fibres  and  organs,  except  bones.  Because  water  and  vegetable  in- 
fusions will  not  develop  animalcules  after  having  been  boiled 
from  4  to  6  hours,  it  does  not  follow,  that  animal  life  is  never 
originated  without  the  agency  of  parents.  Such  boiling  not  only 
destroys  the  germs  and  incipient  organisms  existing  in  the  water 
and  in  the  vegetable  matter,  but  it  drives  out  the  vital  element 
itself,  and  destroys  the  very  essence  of  the  vegetable  matter, 
evaporates  the  nutritious  portions  of  it,  and  unfits  it  for  food, 
for  the  development  of  other  organisms.  Nature  never  boils  the 
materials  out  of  which  she  developes  living  organisms. 

Living  organisms  may  originate  : 

ist,  By  a  special  creation  of  God. 

2d,  By  the  spontaneous  action  of  the  elements  and  forces  of 
nature,  without  the  agency  of  parents,  which  is  called  spontane- 
ous generation  ;  or 

3d,  By  the  spontaneous  action  of  the  elements  and  forces 
of  nature,  acting  through  the  agency  of  parents,  and  their  ova, 
sperm,  spores,  germs  or  seeds. 

Parentage  does  not  supersede,  but  only  co-operates  with,  the 
elements  and  forces  of  nature,  in  propagating  and  producing  liv- 
ing organisms ;  and  when  they  have  come  into  existence,  the 
agencey  of  parents  soon  ceases,  and  their  future  growth  and 


7#  ^Appendix. 

maintenance  depends  wholly  upon  the  elements  and  forces  of 
nature.  These  are  great  and  important  truths,  as  well  as  facts, 
which  every  reader  and  investigetor  of  this  complicated  subject 
should  bear  in  mind. 

The  production  de  novo  and  without  parentage,  of  an  ani- 
mal or  vegetable  organism,  can  arise  only  under  favorable  cir- 
cumstances ;  but  I  want  no  clearer,  nor  more  complete  evidence 
than  my  own  observation,  and  the  facts  and  experiments  reported 
by  Pouchet,  Bastian,  Prof.  Wyman,  and  numerous  other  persons, 
and  the  results  of  their  experiments,  to  establish  to  my  satisfac- 
tion, the  doctrine  of  spontaneous  generation.  The  errors  of 
Pasteur  ,and  the  French  Academy,  arise  from  a  misinterpretation 
of  the  phenomena  of  nature,  from  misinterpreting  the  experi- 
ments and  their  results.  The  doctrine  of  spontaneous  generation 
rests  upon  the  vital  element,  and  the  vital  force  inherent  in  it. 

The  theory  of  Pasteur,  known  as  Panspermism,  is,  that  the 
atmosphhere,  and  bodies  of  water  also,  are  pervaded  with  ani- 
malcules and  their  eggs,  germs  or  spores,  from  which  are  devel- 
oped all  the  animalcules  found  in  vegetable  infusions. 

Since  the  assumed  settlement  of  the  question  by  the  experi- 
ments of  Pasteur  and  the  decision  of  the  French  Academy,  Dr. 
Bastian  of  London,  after  years  of  study  and  experiment,  with  the 
aid  and  light  of  the  experiments  of  Pasteur  and  Pouchet,  Wyman, 
and  many  other  scientific  inquirers,  published  in  1872,  two 
volumes  upon  The  Beginnings  of  Life,  in  which  he  discusses  at 
length,  the  subject  of  life  and  its  origin,  the  various  modes  of 
reproduction,  and  spontaneous  generation.  He  states  and  com- 
ments upon  many  theories,  and  hundreds  of  experiments  of  him- 
self and  others,  points  out  the  errors  and  fallacies  of  Pasteur  and 
the  French  Academy,  and  affirms  that  cases  of  spontaneous  gen- 
eration do  frequently  occur. 

Dr.  Bastian  shows  most  clearly,  ist,  That  a  temperature  of 
212°  F.  for  even  one  minute,  is  sufficient  to  destroy  the  vitality 
of  any  of  the  lower  organisms;  and  I  may  add,  that  it  requires 
but  a  short  time  to  destroy  their  texture.  2d,  That  very  few 
animalcules  or  their  ova,  germs  or  spores,  can  be  found  in  the 


-Appendix.  77 

atmosphere,  even  in  summer ;  and  I  apprehend  that  none  can 
be  found  in  winter,  in  high  latitudes ;  3d,  That  multiplication  by 
the  ordinary  process  of  reproduction,  will  not  adequately  ac- 
count for  the  thousands  of  ciliated  infusoria,  often  met  with  in 
the  course  of  a  few  days,  in  many  organic  infusions. 

These  objections,  supported  by  numerous  experiments, 
should  be  regarded  as  sufficient  to  dispose  of  the  Panspermic 
theory  of  Pasteur,  as  unsound  and  fallacious. 

No  animalcules,  flies,  insects,  or  their  ova,  can  exist  in  the 
atmosphere  in  winter,  in  high  latitudes,  without  being  destroyed. 
Hence  we  have  no  flies  and  no  insects  in  cold  weather.  The  ex- 
periments reported  by  Prof.  Wyman  were  made  in  winter ;  and 
hence  the  swarms  of  animalcules  that  were  developed  could  not 
have  come  from  atmospheric  germs ;  but  must  have  been  gener- 
ated spontaneously,  from  the  water  and  vegetable  matter  which 
he  used.  Prof.  Wyman  says  : 

"  After  the  flasks  were  prepared,  they  were  suspended  from 
the  walls  of  a  sitting  room,  near  the  ceiling,  where  they  were 
exposed  to  a  temperature  of  between  70  deg.  and  80  deg.  F., 
throughout  the  day,  and  nearly  the  same  during  the  night." 

After  stating  the  details  of  each  experiment,  the  materials 
used,  and  its  results — showing  that  in  different  flasks  vibrios, 
bacteriums,  monads,  and  other  species  of  animalcules  were  pro- 
duced, often  in  large  numbers,  the  Professor  says : 

"We  have  here  a  series  of  thirty-three  experiments,  pre- 
pared in  different  ways,  in  which  solutions  of  organic  matter, 
some  of  them  previously  filtered  have  been  boiltd  at  the  ordinary 
pressure  of  the  atmosphere,  for  a  length  of  time,  varying  from 
15  minutes  to  two  hours,  and  exposed  to  air  purified  by  heat." 

"  In  many  instances,  a  solution  like  that  in  sealed  flasks, 
and  boiled  for  the  same  length  of  time,  was  exposed  to  the  ordi- 
nary air  of  the  room,  in  an  open  flask.  Although  the  same 
forms  were  found  in  the  two,  they  appeared  much  more  rapidly 
in  the  open  than  in  the  closed  vessel." 

"  The  result  of  the  experiments  here  described  is,  that  the 
boiled  solution  of  organic  matter  made  use  of,  exposed  only  to  air 


78  Appendix. 

which  had  passed  through  tubes  heated  to  redness,  or  enclosed 
with  air  in  hermetically  sealed  vessels,  and  exposed  to  boiling 
water,  became  the  seat  of  infusorial  life. ' ' 

The  questions  of  life  and  its  origin  are  problems  which 
science  can  never  settle  with  certainty  ;  for  like  every  thing  re- 
lating to  force,  as  well  as  to  intellect,  they  are  to  man  profound 
mysteries — belonging  to  a  large  extent,  to  the  unknown  and  the 
unknowable.  Force,  and  the  essence  of  life  and  of  intellect, 
not  being  visible  to  the  eye — being  beyond  the  power  of  the 
chemist  and  the  microscopist  to  discover,  are  not  the  subjects  of 
positive  science.  Each  of  them  is  the  subject  of  inference  only, 
and  of  uncertain  hnman  reasoning.  Hence  the  variety  of  opin- 
ions upon  such  questions.  But  being  matters  of  inference,  from 
the  phenomena  of  nature  and  the  action  which  we  witness  in  the 
universe,  as  well  as  from  the  consciousness  which  every  person 
has  of  the  action  and  cognitions  of  his  own  mind,  we  have  some 
means  of  inquiring  into  the  nature  of  such  mysterious  causes  and 
processes. 

To  talk  about  molecules  and  protoplasm,  molecular  forces  and 
dynamical  forces,  throws  no  light  upon  the  subject;  but  tends  to 
involve  it  in  mysticism. 

By  experiments  and  careful  observation  of  natural  phe- 
nomena— of  physical,  vital,  and  intellectual  action  and  their  re- 
sults, together  with  long  study  and  inquiry  into  the  causes  of 
such  action  and  results,  all  our  physical  and  metaphysical 
sciences  have  been  built  up — including  physiology  and  zoology, 
botany  and  medicine,  as  well  as  physics  and  chemistry.  Much 
has  been  learned  in  relation  to  each  and  all  of  them — however 
imperfect  our  knowledge  may  still  be.  Many  theories  more  or 
less  false,  but  the  most  of  them  partially  true,  have  been  con- 
ceived, generally  received  for  a  time,  and  then  superseded  by 
others.  And  thus  man  has  groped  his  way  throngh  darkness,  to 
the  present  state  of  human  knowledge — often  led  astray  by  false 
assumptions,  and  false  theories — arising  from  erroneous  inter, 
pretations  of  the  action  of  natural  causes  and  of  the  elements  of 
nature.  His  inquiry  into  subjects  which  he  can  never  master, 


Appendix.  jg 

and  can  never  attain  to  positive  and  certain  knowledge,  has  been 
profitable,  and  productive  of  valuable  results.  It  has  enabled 
him  to  attain  some  ideas  and  knowledge  of  the  mysteries  of  nature 
and  of  God.  But  to  pretend  that,  such  imperfect  and  obscure 
knowledge  is  positive  science,  would  be  an  absurdity. 

The  forces  of  nature  being  the  inherent  properties  of  the 
elements  of  matter,  it  seems  impossible  that  any  one  ele- 
ment should  contain  properties  and  forces  inconsistent  with  each 
other.  Though  the  forces  of  nature  are  various,  and  many  of 
them  conflicting  and  antagonistic,  all  antagonisms  must  come 
from  different  elements,  and  not  from  antagnonistic  forces  in  the 
same  elements.  Though  all  action  and  effects  must  have  causes, 
to  suppose  that  acts  widely  different  in  their  nature,  can  be  pro- 
duced by  the  same  causes,  and  those  only,  or  that  combinations 
different  in  their  nature  can  be  composed  of  the  same  elements, 
and  those  only,  is  to  suppose  what  is  palpably  inconsistent,  and 
therefore  impossible.  To  suppose  that  crystals  and  living  organ- 
isms can  be  produced  by  the  same  causes,  and  out  of  the  same 
elements,  and  those  only,  involves  a  gross  inconsistency — the 
one  being  nearly  solid  in  their  form  and  texture,  and  the  other 
permeated  with  canals  and  tubes,  in  which  fluids  circulate,  to 
nourish  and  maintain  the  organism.  Life  can  never  result  from 
any  combination  of  elements  of  inanimate  matter. 

The  action  of  the  animal  economy  and  of  mind  cannot  be 
rationally  accounted  for,  without  supposing,  that  there  are  in  ex- 
istence elements,  which  neither  the  chemist  nor  the  surgeon  can 
detect,  and  which  the  microscopist  cannot  see  ;  and  hence,  to 
account  for  the  wonderful  powers  of  the  human  mind,  we  must 
infer,  from  the  action  and  phenomena  of  mind,  that  there  is  in 
the  brain  of  man,  an  intelligent  spirit,  distinct  from  the  chemical 
elements  of  which  the  material  organization  of  the  brain  is  com- 
posed;  and  to  account  for  the  origin,  growth  and  maintenance  of 
living  beings,  and  the  action  of  the  animal  economy,  we  must 
infer,  from  their  manifestations  and  effects,  that  they  have  a  vital 
organizing  element,  endowed  with  properties  and  forces  very  dif- 
ferent from  those  of  inanimate  matter,  of  which  earths  and 
rocks,  salts  and  crystals  are  composed. 


So  Appendix. 

Such  inferences  are  rational,  because  they  are  necessary  to 
account  for  the  phenomena.  Natural  phenomena  constitute  the 
evidences,  from  which  the  inferences  are  drawn,  and  upon  which 
they  are  based.  They  are  not  mere  assumptions,  as  the  material- 
ists alledge,  but  rational  interpretations  of  natural  phenomena — 
logical  conclusions  drawn  from  competent  evidence.  Every 
man's  consciousness  testifies  to  himself,  of  the  existence  of  an 
intelligent  spirit  within  him,  which  acts  in  a  manner  very  differ- 
ent from  the  ponderable  elements  of  the  body.  Such  evidence 
is  all  which  the  nature  of  the  case  admits  of,  and  to  reject  it, 
because  it  is  not  equal  to  a  geometrical  demonstration,  would  be 
absurd.  If  such  evidence  be  rejected,  neither  intellectual  nor 
physical  science  can  have  any  foundations  to  rest  upon,  or  evi- 
dence to  support  them.  If  such  evidence  be  rejected  as  unreli- 
able and  untrue,  there  can  be  no  truth  in  any  thing,  that  is 
called  science,  beyond  mere  abstract  mathematics. 

Caloric  is  the  great  stimulant  of  nature,  without  which 
neither  chemical  nor  vital  action  can  take  place.  Chemical 
action  originates  spontaneously  and  de  novo,  under  proper  cir- 
cumstances, and  when  the  temperature  is  right,  to  stimulate  it ; 
but  will  not  operate  very  actively,  when  the  temperature  is  much 
below  summer  heat. 

Chemical  action,  fermentation,  putrefaction,  and  decompo- 
sition, are  all  cases  of  the  sponianeous  action  of  the  elements 
and  forces  of  nature,  when  the  heat  is  sufficient,  and  all  the  cir- 
cumstances favorable.  The  vital  forces,  co-operating  with  the 
physical  forces,  carry  on  the  machinery  and  processes  of  the  ani- 
mal economy ;  and  why  cannot  the  same  forces,  acting  under 
favorable  circumstance,  form  spontaneously  the  proper  elements 
into  living  germs  and  organisms,  and  thus  originate  plants  and 
the  simpler  forms  of  animals  ?  It  is  as  easy  to  conceive  how 
such  elements  and  forces  can  originate  and  form  de  novo  plants 
and  animals,  as  it  to  conceive  how  they  can  be  propagated  and 
developed  from  eggs,  sperm,  seeds,  germs  or  mere  buds.  No 
matter  how  animals  and  plants  may  be  propagated  or  produced, 
the  processes  are  mysterious: — beyond  the  reach  of  scientific 


^Appendix.  81 

analysis — and  beyond  the  reach  of  any  thing  like  positive  and 
certain  science.  The  processes  of  the  propagation  and  develop- 
ment, growth  and  maintenance  for  years,  of  animals  and  trees,  are 
no  less  mysterious  than  their  spontaneous  generation. 

The  physico-chemical  forces,  sometimes  called  dynamical 
forces,  produce  spontaneously  gases  and  water,  crystals  and  salts, 
earths  and  ores,  rocks  and  stones  ;  but  they  never  produce  either 
animal  or  vegetable  organisms,  without  the  co-operation  of  the 
vital  force ',  which  is  an  inherent  property  of  a  peculiar  impon- 
derable element  of  matter,  unknown  to  the  chemist.  That  un- 
known element,  called  the  vital  element,  constitutes  of  itself  the 
life  of  the  blood  of  animals,  the  seed  in  the  earth,  spoken  of  ia 
ist  Genesis,  nth  and  i2th  verses — the  life  and  active  principle 
of  the  eggs,  sperm,  germs,  seeds  and  buds,  which  develop  int© 
animals  and  plants. 

11.  "And  God  said,  let  the  earth  bring  forth  grass,  the  herb 
yielding  seed,  and  the  fruit    tree   yielding  fruit  after  its  kind4 
whose  seed  is  in  itself,  upon  the  earth  ;  and  it  was  so. 

12.  "And  the  earth  brought  forth  grass^'  etc. 

The  question  arises,  what  was  the  seed  spoken  of  in  Gene- 
sis; and  from  whence  come  the  animalcules  and  the  germs  of 
life,  which  the  microscope  reveals  in  the  air,  and  in  still  water  in 
summer  ?  Some  affirm  that  they  all  spring  from  living  parents  ; 
and  that  all  plants,  grasses  and  weeds  spring  from  seeds  grown 
upon  the  stalks  of  parent  plants,  of  like  character.  Can  that 
be  so? 

Grain  and  seeds  kept  dry  will  not  freeze  in  any  tempera- 
ture ;  but  if  saturated  with  water,  they  will  freeze.  Freezing  and 
thawing  not  only  destroys  the  vitality  of  animal  and  vegetable 
organisms,  but  soon  destroys  their  texture,  so  that  they  decay 
when  the  hot  weather  comes.  How  can  the  swarms  of  mosqui- 
quitoes  of  Greenland,  Lapland,  and  other  high  latitudes  be 
accounted  for,  unless  they  are  produced  spontaneously,  by  heat, 
moisture,  and  a  vital  force,  acting  upon  the  decayed  vegetable 
and  animal  matter  of  previous  years  ?  To  suppose  that  frozen 

eggs  will  hatch  and  produce  living  animals,  is  to  make  a  suppo- 
6 


82  Appendix. 

sition  contrary  to  reason — as  well  as  to  all  human  experience  and 
observation. 

Seeds  in  or  on  the  ground  either  grow  or  rot,  very  soon  after 
the  earth  becomes  sufficiently  warm  and  moist  to  promote  vege- 
tation. Seeds,  planted  in  the  fall  or  early  in  the  spring,  do  not 
lie  dormant  until  July  or  August,  and  then  germinate  and  grow. 
Gardens  in  cities  are  generally  kept  so  free  from  weeds  that  none 
are  allowed  to  go  to  seed ;  and  yet  the  following  year,  if  the 
ground  be  rich  and  the  season  be  wet  and  warm,  thousands  of 
weeds  spring  up — more  in  the  latter  part  than  in  the  fore  part 
of  the  season ;  and  it  is  impossible  to  account  for  them,  unless 
they  originate  and  grow  spontaneously,  and  without  seed.  How 
quickly  fire- weeds  spring  up  in  the  woods  where  a  log- heap  or  a 
pile  of  brush  has  been  recently  burned,  and  all  seeds  killed  by 
the  fire.  Weeds  which  grow  from  seeds  produced  the  previous 
year,  usually  spring  up  in  May  or  early  in  June  ;  but  we  know 
that  in  a  warm  and  wet  season,  there  are  from  five  to  ten  times 
as  many  weeds  springing  up  in  g  .rdens  and  in  corn  and  grain 
fields  and  pastures,  in  the  months  of  July,  August  and  September, 
as  during  the  months  of  May  and  June.  Large  quantities  of 
summer  grass  and  weeds  grow  in  corn  fields  after  the  last  cultiva- 
tion of  the  corn  in  July.  The  fact  that  the  most  of  the  weeds 
that  grow  each  year  in  cold  and  temperate  climates,  spring  up 
after  the  first  of  July,  constitutes  unanswerable  evidence  that 
those  coming  up  late  in  the  season  do  not  come  from  seeds  of 
parent  plants,  but  are  spontaneous  productions  of  the  earth. 

Mushrooms  usually  spring  up  in  the  latter  part  of  the  sum- 
mer, upon  heaps  of  manure  which  have  been  fermenting  for 
weeks  in  succession ;  and  upon  droppings  of  manure  upon  old 
pastures.  It  is  very  evident,  that  the  most  of  them  do  not  come 
from  seed  of  parent  plants  grown  the  previous  year ;  for,  if  such 
were  the  case,  they  would  come  earlier  in  the  season.  I  can  see 
no  reason  to  doubt,  that  they  are  the  spontaneous  productions  of  a 
living  principle,  acting  upon  the  manure  out  of  which  they  grow. 
And  so  it  is,  with  the  natural  grasses  and  herbs,  shrubs  and  trees 
of  every  country — with  the  mosses  which  grow  upon  trees,  bar- 


.Appendix.  83 

ren  rocks,  and  upon  the  decaying  wooden  roofs  of  old  buildings, 
as  well  as  upon  the  buckets  of  wells — and  also  with  the  sea-weed 
growing  at  the  bottom  of  the  ocean. 

Many  facts,  which  constitute  clear  and  satisfactory  evidence 
of  spontaneous  vegetation,  are  presented  by  Prof.  A.  Winchell, 
late  of  the  University  of  Michigan,  in  his  work  entitled 
"  Sketches  of  Creation."  On  page  250,  he  says  :  "  Nothing  is  a 
more  common  observation  than  to  see  plants  making  their  ap- 
pearance in  situations  where  the  same  species  was  previously  un- 
known, or  for  a  long  time  unknown,  and  under  circumstances 
such,  that  the  supposition  of  a  recent  distribution  of  seeds  is 
quite  precluded." 

Again  he  says:  "Earth  thrown  out  of  cellars  and  wells  is 
generally  known  to  send  up  a  ready  crop  of  weeds,  and  not 
unfrequently,  of  species  previously  unknown  in  that  spot.  In  all 
these  cases  (many  being  cited),  after  allowing  for  all  known  pos- 
sibilities of  the  distribution  of  seeds  by  winds,  birds,  and  waters, 
it  seems  probable  that  germs  must  have  previously  existed  in 
the  soil  " 

The  Panspermists  attribute  the  production  of  animalcules  in 
vegetable  infusions,  put  up  and  sealed  in  glass  flasks,  to  germs 
and  spores  in  the  atmosphere,  drawn  into  the  flasks  before  they 
were  sealed.  The  seeds  of  plants  and  trees,  herbs  and  grasses 
do  not  grow  and  mature  in  the  ground,  where  new  plants  origin- 
ate. Do  the  germs  from  which  they  grow  originate  in  the 
ground,  as  the  Panspermists  maintain  that  the  germs  of  animal- 
cules originate  in  the  atmosphere  ?  If  such  germs  of  plants, 
grasses,  etc  ,  originate  in  the  ground,  as  they  must,  what  can  be 
the  process,  other  than  that  of  spontaneous  generation  ?  To 
account  for  the  origin  of  plants  and  grasses  in  mysterious  cases, 
the  Panspermists  must  invent  new  fallacies,  and  present  to  the 
public  new  dogmas.  Their  old  fallacies  and  dogmas  will  not 
answer  the  purpose.  They  will  not  bear  the  light  of  reason  and 
common  sense. 

The  germs  of  plants,  not  formed  in  seeds  of  previons  plants, 
but  originating  in  the  ground,  could  not  have  had  a  parental  ori- 
gin ;  they  must  have  been  generated  in  the  ground,  as  animal- 


84  Appendix. 

eules  are  generated  in  the  atmosphere,  and  in  water  of  the  proper 
temperature  >  and  it  is  impossible  to  conceive  how  they  could  be 
thus  originated,  without  parentage,  unless  by  spontaneous  gener- 
ation, or  by  a  special  creation  of  God.  Do  animalcules  propa- 
gate in  the  atmosphere  or  in  water  ?  Is  it  possible  to  conceive 
how  animalcules,  originating  either  in  the  atmosphere,  in  water, 
or  in  vegetable  infusions,  and  particularly  in  winter,  in  cold  cli- 
mates, could  have  a  parental  origin  ?  My  belief  is,  that  they  are 
produced  spontaneously,  by  the  elements  and  forces  of  nature. 

Can  any  one  conceive  how  herbs  and  grasses,  trees  and 
shrubs  of  various  kinds,  originated  on  islands  of  comparatively 
recent  origin,  and  on  mountains  many  thousand  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  sea — (that  must  have  been  thrown  up  by  internal 
upheavals  of  the  earth,)  unless  there  have  not  only  been  innum- 
erable special  creations  of  seeds  or  original  plants  and  trees,  in 
millions  of  places,  but  also  that  such  special  creations  took  place 
at  thousands  of  different  periods  in  the  world's  history ;  or  2d, 
that  the  elements  and  forces  of  nature  can,  and  have,  originated 
such  organisms,  and  produced  them  spontaneously  ?  If  you  sup- 
pose they  all  originated  from  special  creations  of  God,  the  diffi- 
culty is  only  partially  removed — the  mystery  still  remains,  how 
they  germinate  and  grow — how  they  are  preserved  from  the  an- 
tagonistic influences  of  the  chemical  and  physical  forces, — and 
how  they  reproduce  their  kind,  in  diverse  modes,  through  the 
agency  of  seeds,  roots,  slips  and  buds.  Is  it  possible  to  form  a 
rational  conception  of  the  causes  of  the  various  natural  processes 
of  living  organisms,  unless  mother  earth,  and  the  elements  and 
forces  of  nature,  have  power  to  originate  and  develop  them  de 
novo,  as  well  as  to  preserve  them,  and  cause  them  to  propagate 
their  kind  ? 

Pope,  in  his  Essay  on  Manj  gives  a  rational  interpretation 
to  the  nth  and  i2th  verses  of  ist  Genesis,  when  he  says : 

"  See  through  this  air,  this  ocean,  and  this  earth, 
All  matter  quick,  and  bursting  into  birth. 
Above,  how  nigh,  progressive  life  may  go ! 
Around,  how  wide,  how  deep  extend  below ! 
Vast  chain  of  being!  which  from  God  began, 
Nature's  etherial,  human,  angel,  man, 
Beast,  bird,  flsh,  insect !  what  no  eye  can  see, 
No  glass  can  reach ;  from  infinite  to  thee; 
From  thee  to  nothing." 


Appendix. 


FLORA  OF  ANN  ARBOR  AND  VICINITY. 

In  accordance  with  the  directions  of  the  Association,  the 
Committee  on  the  Flora  of  this  vicinity  have  made  out  a  report. 
The  report  includes  the  Phaenogams  and  three  orders  of  Vascular 
Cryptogams. 

The  Committee  were  limited  to  a  circle  having  a  radius  of 
four  miles,  Ann  Arbor  being  the  center.  Within  these  limits  we 
have  represented  one  hundred  and  one  (101)  orders,  three  hun- 
dred and  seventy-eight  (3  7-8)  genera,  and  eight  hundred  and 
forty-eight  (848)  species. 

Dr.  Gray,  in  his  Botany  of  the  Northern  States,  gives  one 
hundred  and  thirty  orders ;  as  already  stated,  we  have  one  hun- 
dred and  one  represented,  leaving  only  twenty-nine  of  which  we 
have  no  representatives  in  this  small  tract  of  country.  This 
shows  the  richness  in  variety,  at  least,  of  this  vicinity. 

We  have  appended  lists  of  exterminated,  rare  and  local, 
and  introduced  plants.  Of  exterminated  plants  there  are  four- 
teen (14)  species.  This  number  includes  Nyssa  multiflora  or 
Pepperidge  tree,  the  wood  of  which  is  very  hard,  and  was  for- 
merly used  for  beetles  and  wedges ;  also  Dirca  palustris,  which 
was  used  by  the  Indians  for  thongs. 

Of  rare  and  local  plants  there  are  thirty-two  (32)  species, 
this  number  including  Viola  rostrata,  which  is  called  one  of  the 
rare  violets.  With  us  it  is  one  of  the  most  common.  In  this 
list  of  rare  and  local  plants,  there  is  one,  viz.  :  Aplectrum  hya- 
male,  commonly  called  putty  root,  and  also  known  as  Adam  and 
Eve,  which  will  soon  be  added  to  the  number  of  exterminated 


86  .Appendix. 

plants,  if  the  gentlemen  from  the  University  continue  their  dep- 
redations. The  following  incident  was  related  by  the  late  Miss 
Clark,  and  we  repeat  it  as  given  by  her.  A  number  of  the  stu- 
dents wishing  specimens  of  this  plant  for  examination,  applied  to 
Miss  Clark  to  learn  the  locality.  Upon  being  informed  they 
straightway  proceeded  to  the  place,  and  dug  up  all  that  was  to  be 
found.  About  this  time  they  were  reminded  of  the  nearness  of 
the  dinner  hour  by  the  pangs  of  hunger  which  they  experienced. 
So,  being  without  other  food,  they  determined,  for  once,  to  let 
the  cause  of  science  take  care  of  itself  and  ate  up  all  of  the 
specimens  they  had  obtained.  Miss  Clark  used  to  say,  "that 
when  the  faculty  turned  the  boys  out  to  grass,  they  should  devise 
some  means  by  which  the  extermination  of  entire  species  might 
be  prevented." 

By  introduced  plants,  we  mean  plants  which  have  made 
their  appearance  within  the  last  twelve  or  fifteen  years.  Of  these 
there  are  sixteen  (16)  species.  In  identifying  one  of  these, 
Thlaspi  arvense,  we  have  had  some  difficulty.  Dr.  A.  B.  Lyons 
found  it  in  fruit  in  1867,  Prof.  Harrington  found  it  in  1868,  and 
it  was  again  found  in  fruit  in  1869  ;  but  not  until  1870  was  it 
found  in  flower.  By  this  time  the  new  edition  of  Dr.  Gray's 
Botany  had  been  published,  and  in  this  we  found  a  description 
of  the  plant. 

Among  the  introduced  plants  we  have  some  which  will  give 
trouble  in  the  future  if  not  soon  exterminated.  We  will  mention 
two.  ist,  Circium  arvense  or  Canada  thistle.  This  is  spreading 
by  the  roots.  Our  city  authorities  prevent  its  spreading  from 
seed  by  keeping  the  tops  cut  down.  The  other  is  Cenchrus  trib- 
uloides  or  bur  grass.  It  made  its  appearcnce  on  the  R.  R.  bank 
near  the  City  Mills  in  1872,  only  a  few  plants  at  first.  Now  it  is 

spread  over  an  acre  or  more. 

MISS  E.  C.  ALMENDINGER. 


RANUNCULACE^E. 

Clematis  Virgin iana,  L. 
Anemone  cylindrica,  Gray. 
Anemone  Virginiana,  L. 
Anemone  Pennsylvanica,  L. 


^Appendix.  8j 

Anemone  nemorasa,  L. 

Hepatica  triloba,  Chaix. 

Hepatica  acutiloba,  D.  C. 

Thalictrum  anemonoides,  Michx. 

Thalictrum  dioicum,  L. 

Thalictrum  purpurascens,  L. 

Thalictrum  Cornuti,  L. 

Ranunculus  divaricatus,  Schrank,  Huron  River,  Ann  Arbor. 

Ranunculus  aquatitis,  L.  var  trichophollus  Chaix,  Prof.  M. 
W.  Harrington,  Huron  River,  Ann  Arbor. 

Ranunculus  multifidus,  Pursh. 

Ranunculus,  multifidus,  Pursh,  var  terrestris,  common  in 
ditches  at  Tamarask  Swamp. 

Ranunculus  abortivus,  L. 

Ranunculus  sceleratus,  L. 

Ranunculus  recurvatus,  Poir. 

Ranunculus  Pennsylvanicus,  L. 

Ranunculus  fascicularis,  Muhl. 

Ranunculus  reprens,  L. 

Ranunculus  bulbosus,  L.,  found  only  in  1872. 

Ranunculus  acris,  L.,  University  campus,  1866. 

Caltha  palustris,  L. 

Captis  trifolia,  Salisb.,  wood  South  of  city,  Prof.  M.  W. 
Harrington. 

Aquilegia  Canadensis,  L. 

Ilydrastis  Canadensis,  L.  Rich  Woods,  not  common. 

Actaea  spicata,  L.  var  rubra,  Michx. 

Actaea  alba,  Bigel. 

MAGNOLIACE^:. 
Liriodendron.Tulipifera,  L.,  Geddesburg. 

ANONACE^E 
Asimina  triloba,  Dunal.,  one  mile  South  of  Ann  Arbor. 

MENISPERMACE^E. 
Menispermum  Canadense,  L. 


88  .Appendix. 

BERBERIDACE^E. 

Caulophyllum  thalictroides,  Michx.,  Local. 
Jeffersonia  diphylla,   Pers,  one   locality  two   miles  up  the 
river. 

Podophyllum  peltatum,  L. 

NYMPH^ACE^E. 

Brasenia  peltata,  Pursh.,  in  the  lakes  West  of  Ann  Arbor. 

Nymphaea  adorata,  Ait. 

Nuphar  advena,  Ait,  in  the  lakes  West  of  Ann  Arbor. 

SARRACENIACE^E. 

Sarracenia  purpurea,  L.,  Peat-bogs. 
PAPAVERACE^E. 

Argemone  Mexicana,  L.,  Miss  C.  Watson. 
Sanguinaria  Canadensis,  L. 

FUMARIACE^E. 

Dicentra  Cucullaria,  D  C,  Found  but  once,  Prof.  M.  W. 
Harrington. 

CRUCIFERjE. 

Nasturtium  afficinale,  R.  Br. 

Nasturtium  palustre,  D  C. 

Nasturtium  Armoracia,  Fries. 

Dentaria  diphylla,  L. 

Dentaria  laciniata,  Muhl. 

Cardamine  rhomboidea,  D  C. 

Cardamine  rhomboidea,  var  purpurea,  Torr. 

Cardamine  pratensis,  L.,  Tamarack  swamp  and  near  Bunk- 
er1 s  Dam. 

Arabis  hirsuta,  Scap.,  North  side  of  Huron  River  beyond 
first  R.  R.  bridge  West,  1861. 

Arabis  Canadensis,  L. 

Arabis  Drommandii,  Gray,  Geol.  Sum.,  1860  and  Prof.  M. 
W.  Harrington  once. 

Barbarea  vulgaris,  R.  Br. 

S  isymbrium   afficinale,  Scop. 


Appendix.  80 

Brassica  Sinapistrum,  Boissier,  Geol.  Surv.,  1860. 

Brassica  Alba,  Geol.  Surv.,  1860. 

Brassica  nigra,  Geol.  Surv.,  1860. 

Camelina  satina,  Crantz,  Road  side  Ann  Arbor. 

Capsella  Bursa-pastoris,  Maench. 

Thlaspi  arvense,  L.  under  the  Papaws. 

Lepidurm  Virginicum,  L.,  Prof.  M.  W.  Harrington. 

Lepidurm  intermedium,  Gray,  not  common. 

VIOLACE^E. 

Solea  concolor,  Ging,  one  locality  two  miles  up  the  river. 

Viola  blanda,  Willd. 

Viola  cucullata,  Ait.  4 

Viola  cucullata,  var  palmata,  West  of  Ann  Arbor,  1861  ; 
not  seen  since. 

Viola  sagittata,  Ait,  damp  ground  East  of  cemetery ;  on 
Campus ;  now  exterminated. 

Viola  pedata,  L.,  Geol.  Survey,  1860. 

Viola  canina,  L.,  var  sylvestris,  Regel. 

Viola  rostrata,  Pursh. 

Viola  striata,  Ait,  Under  the  Papaws. 

Viola  Canadensis,  L.,  Under  the  Papaws. 

Viola  pubescens,  Ait. 

Viola  var  eriocarpa,  Nutt. 

CISTACE^E. 

Helianthemum  Canadense,  Michx. 
Leehea  major,  Michx. 

DROSERACE^E. 

Drosera  rotundifolia,  L.,  Peat-bogs  around  the  lakes  West 
of  Ann  Arbor. 

Drosera  longifolia,  L.,  Peat-bogs  around  the  lakes  West  of 
Ann  Arbor. 

HYPERICACEJE. 

Hypericum  pyramidatum,  Ait,  Bank  of  the  Huron  River, 
near  the  second  R.  R.  bridge  east,  1866. 
Hypericum  prolificum,  L. 


go  Appendix. 

Hypericum  ellipticum,  Hook,  Geol.  Surv.,  1860. 

Hypericum  perforatum,  L. 

Hypericum  corymbosum,  Muhl. 

Hypericum  mutilum,  L. 

Hypericum  Canadense,  L,  Geol.  Survey,  1860. 

Elodes  Virginica,  Nutt,  Near  the  lakes  West  of  Ann  Arbor. 

CARYOPHYLLACE^E. 

Sapanaria  afficinalis,  L. 

Silene  antirrhina,  L. 

Lychnis  Githago,  Lam,  Wheat  fields. 

Arenaria  serphyllifolia,  L.,  State  street,  Ann  Arbor. 

Stellaria  media,  Smith.          ,. 

Stellaria  longifolia,  Muhl. 

Cerastium  vulgatum,  L. 

Cerastium  viscosum,  L. 

PORTULACACE^E. 

Portulaca  obleracea,  L. 
Claytonia  Virginica,  L. 

MALVACEAE. 
Malva  rotundifolia,  L. 
Malva  sylvestris,  L. 
Malva  moschata,  L. 
Abutilon  Avicennae,  Gaertn. 
Hibiscus  Trianum,  L.     Geol.  Survey,  1860. 

TILIACE^E. 
Tilia  Americana,  L. 

LINAGES. 

Linum  Virglnianum,  L.     Road  side,  Ann  Arbor,  Dr.  A.  B. 

Lyons. 

GERANIACE^E. 

Geranium  maculatum,  L. 

Erodium  cicutarium,  L.    Her.     May,   1871,    Prof.   M.    W. 
Harrington. 

Impatiens  fulva,  Nutt. 
Oxalis  stricta,  L. 


Appendix.  gi 


Zanthoxylum  Americanum,  Mill. 
Ptelea  trifoliata,  L.     Along  railroad. 

ANACARDIACE^E. 
Rhus  typhina,  L. 

Rhus  glabra,  L. 
Rhus  venenata,  D.  C. 
Rhus  Toxicodendram,  L. 
Rhus  Aromatica,  L. 


Vitis  aestivalis,  Michx. 

Vitis  cordifolia,  Michx.     Geol.  Survey,  1860. 

Ampelopsis  quinquefolia,  Michx. 

RHAMNACE^E. 

Rhamnus  alnifolins,  L.  Her. 
Ceanothus  Americanus,  L. 

CELASTRACE^E. 

Celastrus  scandens,  L. 

Etionymus  atropurpurens,  Jacq.     Exterminated. 

Euonymus  Americanus  L.,  var  abovatus,  Torr  and  Gray. 

SAPINDACE^E. 

Staphylea  trifolia,  L. 
Acer  saccharinum,  Wang. 

Acer  saccharinum  var  nigrum.     Not  common,  Prof.  M.  W. 
Harrington. 

Acer  dasycarpum,  Ehrhart. 
Acer  rubrum,  L. 

POLYGALACE^E. 

Polygala  san guinea,  L. 

Polygala  verticillata,  L. 

Polygala  Senega,  L. 

Palygala  polygama,  Walt.     Have  not  been  seen  since  1871. 

Polygala  pancifolia.     Willd,  Tamarack  swamps. 


Q2  Appendix. 

SjEGNMINOSjE. 

Lupinus  perennis,  L. 
Trifolium  pratense,  L. 
Trifolium  repens,  L. 

Melilotus  officinalis.     Willd.     Not  common. 
Melilotus  alba,  Lam. 
Medicago  sativa,  L. 
Medicago  lupulina,  L. 

Amorpha  canescens,  Nutt.     Spec,  in  University  Herb,  from 
Ann  Arbor,  Prof.  M.  W.  Harrington. 
Astragalus  Canadensis,  L. 
Desmodium  nudiflorum,  D.  C. 
Desmodium  acuminaturn,  D.  C. 
Desmodium  rotund ifolium,  D.  C. 
Desmodium  canescens,  D.  C.     Campus,  1866. 
Desmodium  cuspidatum,  Torr.  and  Gray. 
Desmodium^  Dillenii,  Darlinght.     Prof.   M.  W.  Harrington. 
Desmodium  paniculatum,  D.  C. 
Desmodium  Canadense,  D.  C. 
Desmodium  rigidum,  D.  C.     Geol.  Survey,  1860. 
Lespedeza  repens,  Torr  and  Gray.     Geol.  Survey,  1860. 
Lespedeza  violaceae,  Pers. 

Lespedeza  violaceae,  var  divergens.     Prof.   M.  W.  Harring- 
ton. 

Lespedeza  hirta,  Ell. 

Lespedeza  capitata,  Michx. 
Vicia  Cracca,  L.     Prof.  M.  W.  Harrington. 
Vicia  Caroliniana,  Walt. 
Vicia  American,  Muhl.     Geddesburg. 
Lathyrus  maritimus,  Bigelow.     Prof.  M.  W.  Harrington. 
Lathyrus  ochroleucus,  Hook. 
Lathyrus  palustris,  L.     River  bank. 

Lathyrus  palustris,  var  myrtifolins.     Prof.   M.  W.   Harring- 
ton. 

Apios  tuberosa,  Muench. 

Amphicarpaea  monoica,  Nutt. 
Baptisia  tinctoria.     Railroad  bridge. 


Appendix.  g3 

Baptisia  leucantha,  Torr  and  Gray. 
Cercis  Canadensis,  L. 
Cassia  Marilandica,  L. 
Gymnocladus  Canadensis,  Lam. 

ROSACE^E. 

Prunus  Americana,  Marshall. 

Prunus  Pennsylvanica,  L.     Prof.  M.  W.  Harrington. 
Prunus  Virgin iana,  L. 
Prunus  serotina,  Ehrhart. 
Spirea  opulifolia,  L. 
Spirea  salicifolia,  L. 
Poterium  Canadense.     Geddesburg. 
Agrimonia  Eupataria,  L. 
Geum  Album,  Gmelin. 
Geum  Virginianum,  L     Geol.  Survey,  1860. 
Geum  strictum,  Ait. 
Geum  rivale,  L. 
Potentilla  Norvegica,  L. 
Potentilla  Canadensis,  L. 

Potentilla  Canadensis,  var  simplex.     Prof.  M.  W.  Harring- 
ton. 

Potentilla  argentea,  L.     Local. 

Potentilla  arguta,  Pursh. 

Potentilla  Anserina,  L.     On  Dr.  Porter's  place. 
Potentilla  fruticosa,  L. 

Potentilla  palustris,  Scop.     In  marsh  around  the  lakes  West 
of  Ann  Arbor. 

Fragaria  Virginiana,  Ehrhart. 

Fragaria  vesea,  L.     Tamarack  swamps. 

Dalibarda  repens,  L.     Geol.  Survey,  1860. 

Rubus  triflorus,  Richardson. 

Rubus  strigosus,  Michx. 

Rubus  occidentalis,  L. 

Rubus  Villosus,  Ait. 

Rubus  Canadensis,  L.     Prof.  M.  W.  Harrington. 

Rubus  hispidus,  L.     Along  Railroad  bank. 


g4  -Appendix. 

Roso  Carolina,  L. 

Rosa  lucida,  Ehrhart. 

Rosa  Rubiginosa,  L.     Road  side. 

Crataegus  coccinea,  L. 

Crataegus  tomeritosa,  L. 

Crataegus  tomentosa,  var  mollis.     Prof.  M.    W.  Harrington. 

Cratcegus  tomentosa,  var  pyrifolia.  Prof.  M.  W.  Harring- 
ton. 

Crataegus  tomentosa,  var  punctata.  Prof.  M.  W.  Harring- 
ton. 

Pyrus  coronaria,  L. 

Pyrus  arbutifolia,  L. 

Pyrus  arbutifolia,  var  melanocarpa.  Prof.  M.  W.  Harring- 
ton. 

Amelanchier  CanadensiSj  Torr  and  Gray  var  Botryapium. 

Amelanchier  Canadensis,  Torr  and  Gray  var  oblangifolia. 

SAXI  FRAG  ACE  JE. 

Ribes  Cynosbatia,  L. 

Ribes  hirtellum,  Michx.     Not  common. 

Ribes  floridum,  L. 

Ribes  rubrum,  L.     Rare. 

Parnassia  Caroliniana,  Michx. 

Saxifraga  Pennsylvanica  L. 

Henchera  Americana,  L. 

Mitella  diphylla  L. 

Mitella  nuda,  L.     Tamarack  swamp. 

CRASSULACE^E. 
Penthorum  sedoides,  L. 

HAMAMELACE.E. 

Hamamelis  Virginica,  L. 

ONAGRACE^E. 
Circaea  Lutetiana,  L. 
Circaea  alpina,  L. 

Epilobium  angustifalium,  L.     On  newly  cleared  land. 
Epilobium  molle,  Torr. 


Appendix.  g$ 

Epilobium  coloratum,  Muhl. 

Oenothera  biennis,  L. 

Oenothera  biennis  L.,  var  muricata.     Miss  C.  Watson. 

Oenothera  biennis  L.,  var  parviflora.     Miss  C.  Watson. 

Oen  >thera  fruticosa,  L. 

Ludvvegia  palustris,  Ell. 

CUCURBITCE^E. 

Echinocystis  lobata,  Torr  and  Gray.     River  bank. 
UMBELIFER^E. 

Hydrocotyle  Americana,  L.  Near  the  first  railroad  bridge 
West,  in  1861.  Dr.  A.  B.  Lyons  has  since  found  it  near  the 
foundry. 

Sanicula  Canadensis,  L.     Rare. 

Sanicula  Marilandica,  L. 

Daucus  Carota,  L.     Not  common. 

Heracleum  Canatum,  Michx. 

Pastinaca  sativa,  L. 

Archemora  rigida,  D.  C. 

Archangelica  hirsuta,  Torr  and  Gray. 

Archangelica  atropurpurea,  Hoffm.     Geol.  Survey,  1860. 

Coneoselinum  Canadense,  Torr  and  Gray. 

Thaspium  aureum,  Nutt. 

Zizia  integerrima,  D.  C. 

Circuta  maculata,  L. 

Circuta  bulbifera,  L. 

Sium  lineare,  Michx. 

Cryptotsenia  Canadensis,  D.  C. 

Osmarrhiza  longistylis.  D.  C. 

Osmarrhiza  brevistylis,  D.  C. 

Erigenia  bulbosa,  Nutt. 

ARALIACEjE. 

Aralia  racemosa,  L. 
Aralia  nudicaulis,  L. 

Aralia  quinquefolia.  In  a  ravine  two  miles  northwest  of 
Ann  Arbor. 

Aralia  trifolia. 


gd  ^Appendix. 

CARNAGES. 

Cornus  Canadensis,  L.     Tamarack  swamps. 

Cornus  florida,  L. 

Cornus  circinata,  L.,  Herb.     Not  common. 

Cornus  sericea,  L. 

Cornus  stolonifera,  Michx. 

Cornus  paniculata,  L.,  Her. 

Cornus  alternifolia,  L. 

Nyssa  multiflora,  Wang.     Geol.  Survey,  1860. 

CAPRIFOLIACE^E. 

Lonicera  flava,  Sims.     Geol.  Survey,  1860. 

Lonicera  parviflora,  Lam. 

Lonicera  parviflora,  var  Dauglarii.     Not  common. 

Diervilla  trifida  Moench.     Geol.  Survey,  1860. 

Triosteum  perfoliatum,  L. 

Sambucus  Canadensis,  L. 

Sambucus  pubens,  Michx. 

Viburnum  Lentaga,  L. 

Viburnum  pubescens,  Pursh. 

Viburnum  acerifolium,  L. 

Viburnum  Opulus,  L.     Not  common. 

RUBIACE^E. 

Galium  Aparine,  L. 

Galium  asprellum,  Michx. 

Galium  concinnum,  Torr  and  Gray. 

Galium  trifidum,  L. 

Galium  triflorum,  Michx. 

Galium  pilosum,  Ait. 

Galium  circaezans,  Michx. 

Galium  lanceolatum,  Torr. 

Galium  bareale,  L. 

Cephalanthus  occidentalis,  L. 

Mitchella  repens,  L.     Tamarack  swamp. 

Honstonia  purpurea,  L.     Geol.  Survey,  1860. 


Appendix. 

VALERIANACE^E. 

Valeriana  sylvatica,  Richards. 
Valeriana  edulis,  Nutt.     Not  common. 

DlPSACEjE. 

Dipsacus  sylvestris,  Mill. 

COMPOSITE. 

Vernonia  fasciculata,  Michx. 

Liatris  squarrosa,  Willd.     Prof.  M.  W.  Harrington. 
Liatris  cylindracea,  Michx. 
Liatris  scariosa,  Willd. 
Eupatorium  purpureum,  L. 
Eupatorium  sessilifolium,  L.     Local. 
Eupatorium,  perfoliatum,  L. 
Eupatorium,  ageratoides,  L. 
Aster  macrophyllus,  L. 

Aster  patens  var  phlogifolins.     Geol.  Survey,  1860. 
Aster  laevis,  L.     Geol.  Survey,  1860. 
Aster  laevis  var  laevigatus.     Geol.  Survey,  1860. 
Aster  laevis  var  cyaneus. 
Aster  azureus,  Lindl. 
Aster  undulatus,  L. 
Aster  cordifolius,  L. 
Aster  sagittifolius,  L. 
Aster  multiflorus,  Ait. 
Aster  miser.     Prof.  M.  W.  Harrington. 
Aster  longifoiius,  Lam.     Geol.  Survey,  1860. 
Aster  puniceus,  L. 
Aster  Novae-Angliae,  L. 
Erigeron  Canadense,  L. 
Erigeron  bellidifolium,  Muhl. 
Erigeron  Philadelphicum,  L, 
Erigeron  annum,  Pers. 
Erigeron  Strigosum,  Muhl. 
Diplopappus  umbellatus,  Torr  and  Gray. 
Solidago  latifolia,  L. 
7 


g8  •  ^Appendix. 

Solidago  caesia,  L. 

Solidago  speciosa,  Nutt.     Geol.  Survey,  2860. 

Solidago  speciosa  var  angustata.     Geol.  Survey,  1890. 

Solidago  rigida,  L. 

Solidago  Riddellii,  Frank. 

Solidago  patula,  Muhl.     Geol.  Survey,  1860. 

Solidago  arguta,  Ait.     Geol.  Survey,  1860. 

Solidago  arguta  var  scabeella.     Geol.  Survey,  1860. 

Solidago  altissima,  L. 

Solidago  memoralis,  Ait.     Prof.  M.  W.  Harrington. 

Solidago  Canadensis,  L. 

Inula  Helennum,  L. 

Polymnia  Canadensis,  L.     Local. 

Polymnia  Uvedalia,  L.     Prof.  M.  W.  Harrington. 

Silphium  terebinthinaceum,  L. 

Ambrosia  trifida,  L. 

Ambrosia  trifida,  var  integrifolia. 

Ambrosia  artemissaefolia,  L. 

Xanthium  strumarium,  L. 

Heliopsis  laevis  Pers. 

Heliopsis  laevis,  var  scabra. 

Rudbeckia  lacniata,  L. 

Rudbeckia  speciosa,  Wenderoth.     Geol.  Survey,  1860. 

Rudbeckia  fulgida,  Ait.     Geol.  Survey,  1860. 

Helianthus  occidentalis,  Riddell. 

Helianthus  gigantens,  L. 

Helianthus  strumosus,  L. 

Helianthus  divaricatus,  L. 

Helianthus  hirsutus,  Raf. 

Helianthus  dec-ipe  talus,  L. 

Helianthus  doronicoides,  Lam.     Geol.  Survey,  1860. 

Coreopsis  tripteris,  L. 

Coreopsis  aristosa,  Michx. 

Bidens  frondosa,  L. 

Bidens  cerunu,  L. 

Bidens  chrysanthemoides,  Michx. 

Bidens  Bechii,  Torr.     Huron  River,  Ann  Arbor. 


Appendix.  gg 

Helenium  Autumnale,  L. 
Maruta  Cotula,  D.  C. 
Achillea  Millefolium,  L. 
Leucanthemum  vulgare,  Lam. 

Leucanthemum    Parthenium,  Godran.     In   the   streets,    es- 
caped from  cultivation. 

Tanacetum  vulgare,  L. 

Artemisia  biennis,  Willd. 

Gnaphalium  uliginosum,  L. 

Gnaphalium  polycephalum,  Michx. 

Antennaria  plantaginifolia,  Hook. 

Erechthites  hieracifolia,  Raf. 

Cacalia  atriplicinifolia,  L. 

Senecia  aureus,  L. 

Senecia  aureus,  var  obavatus.     Geol.  Survey,  1860. 

Senecia  balsamitae. 

Cirsium  lanceolatum,  Scop. 

Cirsium  discolor,  Spreng. 

Cirsium  muticnm,  Michx. 

Cirsium  pumilum,  Spreng. 

Cirsium  arvense,  Scop. 

Cirsium  altissimum,  Spreng. 

Lappa  officinalis,  Allioni,  var  majas, 

Cichorium  Intybus,  L. 

Cynthia  Virginica,  Dov. 

Hieracium  Canadense,  Michx. 

Hieracium  scabrum,  Michx. 

Hieracium  venosum,  L. 

Nabalus  albus,  Hook. 

Nabalus  albus,  var  serpentaria.     Geol.  Survey,  1860. 

Nabalus  altissimus,  Hook.     Geol.  Survey,  1860, 

Taraxacum  Dens — leonis,  Desf. 

Lactuca  Canadensis,  L. 

Lactuca  Canadensis,  var  integrifolia. 

Sonchus  oleracus,  L. 

Sonchus  asper,  Vill. 


wo  Appendix. 

LOBELIACE^E. 

Lobelia  cardinalis,  L. 
Lobelia  syphilitica,  L. 
Lobelia  spicata,  Lam. 

Lobelia  Kalmii. 

CAMPANULACE^. 

Campanula  rotundifolia,  L. 
Campanula  aparinoides,  Pursh. 
Campanula  Americana,  L. 

ERICACEAE. 

Gaylussacia  resimosa,  Torr  and  Gray. 

Gaylussacia  frondosa,  Torr  and  Gray.     Geol.  Survey,  1860. 

Vaccinnium  Oxycoccus,  L. 

Vaccinnium  macrocarpon,  Ait. 

Vaccinnium  Pennsylvanicum,  Lam.     Prof.  M.  W.  Harring- 
ton. 

Vaccinnium  vacillans,  Solander.     Prof.  M.W.Harrington. 

Vaccinnium  Canadense,  Kalm.     Prof.  M.  VV.  Harrington. 

Chiogenes  hispidula,  Torr  and  Gray.     Local. 

Cassandra  calyculata,  Dan.     Local. 

Andromeda  polifolia,  L. 

Pyrola  rotundifolia,  L. 

Pvrola  elliptica,  Nutt. 

Pyrola  secunda,  L. 

Chimaphila  umbellata,  Nutt. 

Monotropa  uniflora,  L. 

Monotropa  Hypopitys,  L.     Rare  in  vicinity  of  Ann  Arbor. 

AQUIFOLIACE^E. 
Ilex  verticllata,  Gray. 

PLANTAGINACEjE. 

Plantago  Major,  L. 
Plantago  lanceolata,  L. 

PRIMULACE^E. 

Trientalis  Americana,  Pursh. 
Lysimachia  thyrsiflora,  L. 


Appendix.  101 

Lysimachia  stricta,  Ait. 
Lysimachia  quadrifolia,  L. 
Lysimachia  ciliata,  L. 
Lysimachia  longifolia,  Pursh. 
Anagallis  arvensis,  L.     Geol.  sur.  1860. 

LENTIBULACE^E. 

Utricularia  vulgaris,  L. 

Utricularia  minor,  L.     Geol.  sur.  1860. 

Utricularia  intermedia,  Hayne.     Geol.  star.  1860. 

•    OROBANCHACE^E. 

Epiphegus  Virginiana,  Bart.     Rare  in  vicinity  of  Ann  Arbor. 
Conopholis  Americana,  Wallroth.     Geol.  sur.  1860. 
Aphylion  uniflorum,  Torr  and  Gray. 

SCROPHULARIACEJE. 

Verbascurn  Thapsus,  L. 

Verbascum  Blattaria,  L.     Prof.  M.  W.  Harrington. 

Linaria  vulgaris,  Mill. 

Scrophularia  nodosa,  L. 

Collinsia  verna,  Nutt.     Lost. 

Chelone  glabra,  L. 

Pentstemon  pubescens,  Solander. 

Mimulus  ringens,  L. 

Ilysanthes  gratioloides.  Benth. 

Veronica  Virginica,  L. 

Veronica  Anagallis,  L. 

Veronica  Americana,  Schweinitz. 

Veronica  scutellatta,  L. 

Veronica  officinalis,  L. 

Veronica  serpyllifolia,  L. 

Veronica  peregrina,  L. 

Veronica  arvensis,  L. 

Veronica  agrestis,  L.     Prof.  M.  W.  Harrington. 

Gcrardia  tenui folia,  Vahl. 

Gerardia  flava,  L.     Prof.  M.  W.  Harrington. 

Gerardia  quercifolia,  Pursh.     Prof.  M.  W.  Harrington. 


102  -Appendix. 

Gerardia  auriculata,  Michx.     Prof.  M.  W.  Harrington. 
Gerardia  pedicularia,  L. 
Castilleia  coccinea,  Spreng. 
Pedicularis  Canadensis,  L. 
Pedicularis  lanceolata,  Michx. 

ACANTHACE^E. 

Dianthera  Americana,  L. 

VERBENACE^E. 
Verbena  hastata. 

Verbena  urticifolia,  L. 
Phyrma  Leptostachya,  L. 

LABIATE. 

Teuchrium  Canadense,  L. 
Mentha  viridis,  L. 
Mentha  peperita,  L. 
Mentha  Canadensis,  L. 
Lycopus  Virginicus,  L. 
Lycopus  Europaens,  L. 
Pycnanthemum  lanceolatum,  Pursh. 
Pycnanthemum  linifolium,  Push.     Geol.  sur.  1860. 
Hedeoma  pulegroides,  Pers. 
Colinsonia  Canadensis,  L. 
Monarda  fistulosa,  L. 
Blephalia  ciliata,  Raf. 
Lophanthtis  scrophulariaefolius,  Benth. 
Nepeta  Cataria,  L. 
Nepeta  Glechoma,  Benth. 

Physostegia  Virginiana,  Benth.     Geol.  sur,  1860. 
Brunella  vulgaris,  L. 
Sentellaria  galericulata,  L. 
Sentellaria  lateriflora,  L. 
Stachys  palustris  var.  aspera. 
Leonurus  Cardiaca,  L. 

BARAGINACE^E. 

Symphytum  officinale,  M.     Sparingly  escaped  from  cultiva- 
tion, M.  W.  Harrington. 


Appendix. 


Lithospermum  arvense,  L. 
Lithosperraum  latifolium,  Michx. 
Lithospermum  canescens,  Lehm. 
Myasotis  verna,  Nutt.     Geot.  sur.  1860. 
Echinospermum  officinale,  L. 
Cynoglossum   Morisoni,  D.  C. 

HYDROPHYLLACE^:. 

Hydrophyllum  Virginicum,  L. 
Hydrophyllum  Canadense,  L. 
Hydrophyllum  appendiculatum,  Michx. 

PALEMONIACE.E. 
Phlox  pilosa,  L. 
Phlox  divaricata,  L. 

CONVOLONLACl'-^E. 

Calystegia  sepium,  R.  Br. 
Calystegia  spithamaea,  Pursh. 
Cuscuta  Gronovii,  Willd. 

SALANACE.E. 

Solanum  Dulcamora,  L. 

Solarium  nigrum,  L. 

Physalis  pubescens,  L.     Prof.  M.  W.  Harrington. 

Physalis  viscosa,  L.     Prof.  M.  W.   Harrington. 

Nicandra  physaloides,  Gaertu. 

Datura  Stramonium,  L. 

Datura  Tatula,  L. 

GENTIANACE^:. 

Gentiana  quinqueflora,  Lam. 

Gentiana  quinqueflora,  var.  occidentalis.     Geol.  sur.  1860. 

Gentiana  crinita,  Froel. 

Gentiana  detonsa,  Fries.     Prof.  M.  W.  Harrington. 

Gentiana  alba,  Muhl. 

Gentiana  Andrewsii,  Grisel. 

Gentiana  puberula,  Michx. 

Menyanthes  trifoliata,  L. 


•^  rV" 


104  Appendix. 

APOCYNACE^E. 

Apocynum  androssemifolium,  L. 
Apocynum  cannabinum,  L. 

ASCLEPIADACE^E. 

Asclepias  Cornuti,  Decaisne. 

Asclepias  variegata,  L.     Geol.  sur.  1860. 

Asclepias  phytolaccoides,  Pursh. 

Asclepias  quadrifolia,  Jacq.     Geol.  sur.  1860. 

Asclepias  purpurascens,  L. 

Asclepias  incarnata,  L. 

Asclepias  tuberosa,  L. 

Asclepias  verticillata,  L. 

Acerates  viridiflora,  Ell. 

OLEACE^E. 

Fraxinus  Americana,  L. 
Eraxinus  viridis,  Michx.     Geol.  sur.  1860. 
Fraxinus  sambucifolia,  Lam.     Geol.  sur.  1860. 

ARISTOLOCHIACE^E. 
Asarum  Canadense,  L. 

CHENOPODIACE^E. 
Chenopodium  album. 
Chencpodium  hybridum,  L. 
Chenopodium  Botrys,  L.     Geol.  sur.  1560. 
Chenopodium  ambrosioides,   L.     Prof.  M.  W.  Harrington, 
AMARANTACEJE. 

Amarantus  retroflexus,  L.  var.  hybridus.     Prof.  M.  W.  Har- 
rington. 

Amarantus  albus,  L.     Prof.  M.   W.  Harrington. 
Amarantus  hypochondriacus,  L.     Geol.   sur.  1860. 

POLGONACE^E. 

Polygonum  orientale,  L. 
Polygonum  incarnatum,  Ell. 
Polygonum  Persicaria. 
Polygonum  Hydropiper,  L. 


Appendix. 

Polygonum  acre,  H.  B.  K. 
Polygonum  hydropiperoides,  Michx. 
Polygonum  amphibium,  L. 
Polygonum  Virginianum,  L. 
Polygonum  aviculare,  L. 
Polygonum  aviculare,  var.  erectum,  Roth. 
Polygonum  tenne,  Michx. 
Polygonum  sagittatum,  L. 
Polygonum  Convolvulus,  L. 
Polygonum  dumetorum,  L.  var.  scandens. 
Fagopyrum    esculentum,  Moench.     Escaped    from   cultiva- 
tion. 

Rumex  verticillatus,  L.     Geol.  sur.  1860. 

Rumex  crispus,  L.     Prof.  M.  W.   Harrington. 

Rumex  obtusifolius,  L. 

Rumex  sanguineus,  L      Geol.  sur.     Geol   sur.  1860. 

Rumex  Acetosella,  L. 

LAURACE^E. 

Sassafras  officinale,  Neis. 
Lindera  Benzoin,  Meisner. 

TH\MELEACE^E. 
Dirca  palustris,  L. 

ELEAGECE^E. 

Shepherdia  Canadensis,  Nutt.     Lost. 

SANTALACEJE. 
Comanda  umbellata,  Nutt. 

SANRURACE^E. 
Saururus  cernuus,  L.     Local. 

EUPHORHIACE^E. 

Euphorbia  maculata,  L. 
Euphorbia  hypericifolia,  L. 
Euphorbia  corollata,  L. 

Euphorbia  Esula,   L.     Sparingly  escaped  from  cultivation. 
M.  W.  Harrington. 


io6  -Appendix. 

Euphorbia  commutata,  Engelm.     Geol.  sur.  1860. 
Euphorbia  Cyparissias,  L.     Escaped.     Common  in  the  city, 

M.  W.  Harrington. 

URTRICACE^E. 

Ulmus  fulva,  Mich. 

Ulmus  Americana,  L. 

Ulmus  racemosa,  Thomas.     Swamp  one  mile  south  of  Ann 
Arbor.     Geol.  sur.  1860. 

Morus  Alba,  L. 

Urtica  gracilis,  Ait. 

Laportea  Canadensis,  Gaudichand. 

Pilea  pumila,  Gray. 

Bochmeria  cylindrica,  Willd. 

Cannabis  Sativa,  L. 

Humulus  Lupulus,  L. 

PLATANACE^E. 

Platan  us  occidental  is,  L. 

JUGLANDACEyE. 

Juglans  cinerea,  L. 

Juglans  nigra,  L. 

Carya  alba,  Nutt. 

Carya  microcarpa,  Nutt.     Prof.  M.  W.   Harrington. 

Carya  porcina,  Nutt.     Prof.  M.  W.  Harrington. 

Carya  amara,  Nutn     Prof.  M.  W.  Harrington. 

Carya  Sulcata,  Nutt.     Geol.  sur.  1860. 

CUPULIFER^E. 
Quercus  alba,  L. 

Quercus  bicolor,  Willd.     Prof.  M.  W,  Harrington. 
Quercus  macrocarpa,  Michx. 
Quercus  Prinus,  L.  var.  acuminata  Michx. 
Quercus  imbricaria,  Michx. 
Quercus  coccinea,  Wang. 
Fagus  ferruginea,  Ait. 
Corylus  Americana,  Walt. 
Ostrya  Virginica,  Willd. 
Carpinus  Americana,  Michx. 


Appendix.  107 

BETULACE^E. 

Betula  lenta,  L.     Tamarack  swamp. 
Betula  alba  var.  populi folia,  Spach. 

Betula  pumila,  L. 

SALICACE^E. 

Salix  discolor,  Muhl.     M.  W.  Harrington. 

Salix  Cordata,  Muhl.,  var.  angustata. 

Salix  livida,  Wahl,  var.  occidentalis. 

Salix  fragilis,  L. 

Salix  nigra,  Marsh.     M.  W.  Harrington. 

Salix  lucida,  Muhl. 

Populus  tremuloides,  Michx. 

Populus  grandidentata,  Michx. 

Populus  balsamifera,  L.,  var.  candicans. 

Populus  Alba. 

CONIFERA. 

Larix  Americana,  Michx.     Tamarack  swamp. 
Juniperus  communis,  L. 
Juniperus  Virginiana,  L. 

ARACE^E. 

Arisaema  triphyllum,  Torr. 

Arisaema  Dracontium,  Schott. 

Peltandra  Virginica,  Raf.     Huron  River. 

Calla  palustris,  L. 

Symplocarpus  faetidus,  Salisb. 

Acorus  Calamus,  L.     Huron  River. 

LEMNACE^E. 

Lemna  trisulca,  L.     Ponds  in  Cemetery,  M.  W.  Harrington. 
Lemna  minor,  L.     Ponds  in  Cemetery. 
Lemna  polyrrhiza,  L.     Ponds  in  Cemetery. 

TYPHACE^E. 
Typha  latifolia,  L. 
Sparganium  enrycarpum,  Engelm. 
Sparganium  simplex,  Hudson,  var.  androcladum. 


io8  ^Appendix. 

NAIADACE^E. 

Naias  flexilis,  Rostk.     Huron  River. 
Potamogeton  natans,  L,     Huron  River. 
Potamogeton  perfoliatus,  L.     Huron  River. 
Potamogeton  pectinatus,  L.     Huron  River. 

ALISMACE^E. 

Triglochin  maritmum,  L.  var.  elatum. 
Alisma  Plantago,  L.  var.  Americanum. 
Sagittaria  variabilis,  Engelm. 

HYDROCHARIDACE^E. 
Anacharis  Canadensis. 

ORCHIDACE^E. 

Orchis  spectabilis,  L.     Not  common. 

Habenaria  tridentata,  Hook. 

Habenaria  virescens,  Spreng. 

Habenaria  viridis,  R.  Br.,  var.  bracteata,  Reichenbach. 

Habenaria  hyperborea,  R.  Br. 

Habenaria  dilatata,  Gray. 

Habenaria  Hookeri,  Torr. 

Habenaria  ciliaris,  R.  B. 

Habenaria  Leucophaea. 

Habenaria  lacera,  R.  Br. 

Habenaria  psycodes,  Gray. 

Habenaria  fimbriata,  R.  Br.     Geol.  sur. 

Spiranthes  latifolia,  Torr. 

Spiranthes  cernua,  Richard. 

Spiranthes  gracilis,  Bigelow. 

Arethusa  bulbosa,  L.     Peat  bogs  two  miles  west  of  Ann  Arbor. 

Pogonia  ophioglossoides,  Nutt. 

Calopagon  pulchellus,  R.  Br. 

Microstylis  ophioglossoides,  Nutt. 

Liparis  Loeselii,  Richard. 

Corallarhiza  liliifulia  multiflora,  Nutt. 

Aplectrum  hyamale,  Nutt. 

Cypripedium  candidum,  Muhl. 


Appendix.  log 

Cypripedium  parviflorum,  Sisb.     M.  W.  Harrington. 
Cypripedium  pubescens,  Willd. 
Cypripedium  spectabile,  Svvartz. 
Cypripedium  acaule,  Ait.     Tamarack  swamp. 

AMARYLLIDACE^E. 
Hypoxys  erecta,  L. 

H^EMODARACE^E. 

Aletris  farinosa,  L. 

IRIDACCE^E. 
Iris  versicolor,  L. 

Sisyrinchium  Bermudiana,  L. 

DJSCOREACE^E. 

Discorea  villosa,  L. 

SMILACE.E. 

Smilax  rotundifolia,  L. 

Smilax  hipida,  Muhl.     Geol.  sur.  1860. 

Smilax  herbacea,  L. 

Smilax  herbacea,  var.  pulverulenta. 

Smilax  tamnifolia,  Michx.     Geol.   sur.  1860. 

LlLTACE^E. 

Trillium  grandiflorum,  Salisb. 

Trillium  erectum,  L. 

Trillium  erectum,  var.  album. 

Trillium  erectum,  var.  declinatum.     M.  W.  Harrington. 

Trillium  erythocarpum,  Michx.     M.  W.  Harrington. 

Zygadenus  glaucus,  Nutt.     Rare. 

Tofieldia  glutinosa,  Willd. 

Uvularia  grandiflora,  Smith.* 

Uvularia  perfoliata,  L.     M.  W.  Harrington. 

Uvularia  sessilifolia,  L. 

Smilacina  racemosa,  Desf. 

Smilacina  stellata,  Desf. 

Smilacina  bifolia,  Ker. 

Polygonatum  biflorum,  Ell. 

Polygonatum  giganteum,  Dietrich. 


110  Appendix. 

Liliurn  Philadelphicum,  L. 

Lilium  Candense,  L. 

Lilium  superbum,  L.     Geol.  sur. 

Erythronium  Americanum,  Smith. 

Erythronium  albidum,  Nutt. 

Allium  tricoccum,  Ait. 

Allium  cernuum,  Roth. 

Allium  Canadense,  Kalm.     Local. 

JUNCACE^E. 

Luzula  comprestis,  D.  C. 
Juncus  effusus,  L.   % 
Juncus  bufonis,  L. 
Juncus  nodosus,  L. 
Juncus,  tenuis,  Willd. 

Juncus  Pelocarpus,  E.  Meyer.     M.  W.   Harrington. 
Juncus  acuminatus,   Michx,   var.    legitimus.     M.   W.    Har- 
rington. 

Juncus  Canadensis,  Gray. 

PONTEDERIACE^E. 

Pontederia  cordata,  L. 
Schollera  graminea,  Willd. 

COMNELYNACE^B. 

Tradescantia  Virginica,  L. 

CYPERACE^E. 

Cyperus  flavescens,  L.     M.  W.  Harrington. 

Cyperus  diandrus,  Torr. 

Cyperus  Strigosus,  L.     M.  W.  Harrington. 

Cyperus  filiculmis,  Vahl. 

Dulchium  spathaceum,  Pers. 

Elocharis  obtusa,  Schultes.     M.  W.  Harrington. 

Elocharis  palustris,  R.  Br. 

Elocharis  tenuis,  Schultes. 

Elocharis  acicularis,  R.  Br. 

Scirpus  pungens,  Vahl. 


Appendix. 


1:1 


Scirpus  validus,  Vahl. 

Scirpus  atrovirens,  Muhl. 

Scirpus  polyphyllus,  Vahl. 

Scirpus  lineatus,  Michx. 

Scirpus  Eriphorum,  Michx. 

Eriophorum  vaginatum,  L.     M.  W.  Harrington. 

Eriophorum  Virginicum,  L. 

Eriophorum  polystachyon,  L. 

Eriophorum  polystachyon,  var.  augustifolia.     M  W.  Harring- 


ton. 


M.  W.  Harrington. 
M.  W.  Harrington. 


Eriophorum  gracile,  Koch. 

Fimbristilis  autumnalis,    Roem   and   Schult.     M.   W.    Har- 
rington. 

Fimbristilis  capillaris,  Gray. 

Ryn diaspora  alba,  Vahl. 

Scleria  triglomerata,  Michx. 

Carex  polytrichoides,  Muhl. 

Carex  teretinscula,  Good. 

Carex  decomposita,  Muhl. 

Carex  vulpinoidea,  Michx. 

Carex  stipata. 

Carex  sparganoides,  Muhl. 

Carex  cephaloides,  Dew. 

Carex  cepalophara,  Muhl. 

Carex  straminea,  Schk. 

Carex  straminea,  var.  typica. 

Carex  straminea,  var.  tenera. 

Carex  stricta,  Lam 

Carex  crinita,  Lam. 

Carex  limosa,  L. 

Carex  aurea,  Nutt. 

Carex  rosea,  Schk.     Prof.  M.   Harrington. 

Carex  granularis,  Muhl.      Prof.  M.  W.  Harrington. 

Carex  conoidea,  Schk.     M.  W.  Harrington. 

Carex  conescens,  L.     M.  W.  Harrington. 

Carex  scoparia,  Schk.     M.  W.  Harrington. 


M.  W.    Hrrrington. 
M.  W.  Harrington. 


212  Appendix. 

Carex  lanuginosa,  Michx.     M.  W.  Harrington. 

Carex  scabrata.  Schw.     M.  W.  Harrington. 

Carex  gracillima,  Schw. 

Carex  laxi flora,  Lam. 

Carex  Pennsylvanica,  Lam. 

Carex  comosa,  Booth 

Carex  hystricina,  Will. 

Carex  instumescens,  Rudge. 

Carex  lupulina,  Muhl. 

Carex  Tuckermania,  Booth. 

GRAMINE^E. 

Leersia  oryzoides,  Swartz. 

Leersia  Virginica,  Willd. 

Zizania  aquatica,  L. 

Alapecurcs  pratensis,  L. 

Alapecurus  aristulatus,  Michx. 

Phleum  pratense,  L. 

Agrostis  perennans,  Tuckerm.     M.  W.  Harrington. 

Arostis  scabra,  Willd.     M.  W.  Harrington. 

Agrostis  vulgaris,  With.     M.  W.  Harrington. 

Muhlenbergia  dirTusa,  Schreber. 

Brachyelytrum  aristatum.     M.  W.  Harrington. 

Calamagrostis  Canadensis,  Willd. 

Spartina  cynosuroides.     Willd. 

Dactylis  glomerata,  L. 

Koeleria  cristata,  Pers.     M.  W.  Harrington. 

Eatonia  obtusata,  Gray.     M.  W.   Harrington. 

Eatonia  Pennsylvanica,  Gray.     M.  W.  Harrington. 

Glyceria  elongata,  Trin.     M.  W.  Harrington. 

Glyceria  nervata,  Trin.     M.  W.  Harrington. 

Glyceria  aquatica,  Smith. 

Poa  annua,  L.     M.  W.  Harrington. 

Poa  compressa,  L.     M.  W.  Harrington. 

Poa  serotina,  Ehrhart.     M.  W.  Harrington. 

Poa  pratensis,  L.     M.  W.  Harrington. 

Eragrostis  poaeoides,  Beauv.  var.  megastachya. 


.Appendix. 

Eragrostis  capillaris,  Nees.     M.  W.  Harrington. 

Festuca  tenella,  Willd.     M.  W.  Harrington. 

Eestuca  ovina,  L.     M.  W.  Harrington. 

Festuca  Elatior,  L.  var,  pratensis.     M.  W.  Harrington. 

Festuca  nutans,  Willd.     M.  W.  Harrington. 

Bromus  secalinus,  L. 

Bromus  ciliatus,  L. 

Phragmites  communis,  Trin. 

Triticum  repens,  L. 

Elymus  Virginicus,  L.     M.  W.  Harrington. 

Elymus  Canadensis,  L. 

Gymnostichum  Hystrix,  Screb. 

Danthania  spicata,  Beauv.     M.  W.  Harrintgon. 

Avena  striata,  Michx.     M.  W.  Harrington. 

Aira  casspitosa,  L.     M.  W.  Harrington. 

Hierochloa  borealis,  Reom  and   Schultes.     Huron  river. 

Phalaris  Canadensis,  L. 

Phalaris  arundinacea,  L.     M.  W.  Harrington. 

Philaris  arundinacea,  var  picta.     M.  W.  Harrington. 

Panicum  sanguinale,  L. 

Panicum  capillare,  L. 

Panicum  Crus-galli,  L. 

Panicum  latifolium,  L.     M.  W.  Harrington. 

Panicum  dichotomum,  L.     M.  W.  Harrington. 

Panicum  depauperatum,  Muhl.     M.  W.  Harrington. 

Panicum  glabrum,  Gaudin.     M.  W.  Harrington. 

Setaria  glauca,  Beauv. 

Setaria  viridis,  Beauv. 

Cenchrus  tribuloides,  L. 

Andropagun  furcatus,  Muhl. 

Andropagun  scoparius,  Michx. 

Sorghum  nutans,  Gray. 

EQUISETACE^E. 
Equisetum  arvense,  L. 
Equisetum  sylvaticurn,  L.     Rare. 
Equisetum  limosum  L.     M.  W.  Harrington. 
Equisetum  hyemale,  L. 
8 


^Appendix. 

FlLICES. 

Adiantum  pedatum,  L. 

Pteris  aquilina,  L. 

Woodvvardia  Virginica,  Smith. 

Asplenium  angustifolium,  Michx.     Rare  about  Ann  Arbor. 

Asplenium  thelypteroides,  Michx. 

Asplenium  Filix-fcenima,  Bernh. 

Phegopteris  hexagonoptera,  Fee. 

Aspidium  Thelypteris,  Swartz. 

Aspidium  Noveboracense,  Swartz. 

Aspidium  spinulosum  var  intermedium. 

Aspidium  spinulosum  var  dilatatum. 

Aspidium  cristatum,  var  Clintonianum. 

Aspidium  acrostichoides,  Swartz. 

Cystopteris  bulbifera,  Bernh. 

Cystopteris  fragilis,  Bernh. 

Struthiopteris  Germanica,  Willd. 

Onoclea  sensibilis,  L. 

Osmunda  regalis,  L. 

Osmunda  Claytoniana,  L. 

Osmunda  cinamomea,  L. 

Botrychium  Virginicum,  Swartz. 

Botrychium  lunaroides,  Swartz.     Rare. 

LYCOPADIACE^E. 
Salaginella  apus,  Spring. 

EXTERMINATED  PLANTS. 

Ranunculus  multifidus,  Pursh. 
Dicentra  Cucullaria,  D.  C. 
Arabis  Drommandii,  Gray. 
Erodium  circutarium,  L:,  Herb. 
Polygala  polygama,  Walt. 
Nyssa  multi flora,  Wang. 
Aphyllon  uniflorum,  Torr  and  Gray. 
Collinsia  verna,  Nutt. 
Dirca  palustris,  L. 


Appendix. 

Calla  palustris,  L. 
Liparis  liliifolia,  Richard. 
Liparis  Loeselii. 
Botrychium  lunarioides,  Swartz. 

RARE  AND  LOCAL  PLANTS. 

Thalictrum  purpurascens,  L. 
Captis  trifolia,  Salisb. 
Liriodendron  Tulipifera,  L. 
Asimina  triloba,  Dunal. 
Jefferzonia  diphylla,  Pers. 
Brasenia  peltata,  Pursh. 
Solea  concolor,  Ging. 
Viola  rostrata,  Pursh. 
Viola  striata,  Ait. 
Viola  Canadensis,  L. 
Elodes  Virginica.  Nutt. 
Rhus  Aromatica,  L. 
Poterium  Canadense.  •  •' 

Hydracotyle  Americana,  L. 
Sanicula  Canadensis,  L. 
Erigenia  bulbosa,  Nutt. 
Aralia  quinguefolia. 
Bidens  Beckii,  Torr. 
Chimaphila,  uinbellata,  Nutt. 
Monotrapa  Hypopitys,  L. 
Epiphegus  Virginiana,  Bart. 
Calystegia  spithamaea,  Pursh. 
Shepherdia  Canadensis,  Nutt. 
Saururus  cernuris,  L. 
Peltandra  Virginica,  Raf. 
Spiranthes  lati folia,  Torr. 
Corallorhiga  multiflora. 
Aplectrum  hyamale,  Nutt. 
Cypripedium  Candidum,  Muhl. 
Allium  Canadense,  Kalm. 


n6  Appendix. 

Equisetum  sylvaticum,  L. 
Asplenium  angusti folium,  Michx. 

INTRODUCED  PLANTS. 

Ranunculus  bulbosus,  L. 
Ranunculus  acris,  L. 
Nasturtium  officinale,  R.  Br. 
Thlaspi  arvense,  L. 
Hypericum  pyramidatum,  Ait. 
Linum  Virginianum,  L. 
Medicagu  lupulina. 
Lencanthemum  vulgare,  Lam. 
Cirsium  arvense,  Scop. 
Virbascum  Blattaria,  L. 
Veronica  agrestis,  L. 
Symphytum  officinale,  L. 
Datura. 

Euphorbia  Esula,  L. 
Euphorbia  Cyparissisas^  L. 
Cenchrus  tribuloides,  L. 


Appendix. 


COLORED  SNOW-FALL  IN  WESTERN  MICHIGAN. 


BY     S.     T.     DOUGLAS. 

ON  the  5th  of  February  last  there  occurred  in  the  western 
part  of  Michigan  a  somewhat  strange  and  interesting  phenome- 
non, namely,  a  fall  of  colored  snow,  which,  although  exciting 
much  interest  and  some  speculation  at  the  time,  has  as  yet  met 
with  no  very  satisfactory  explanation  which  would  account  for 
its  origin  and  its  appearance.  Coming  into  possession  of  a 
specimen  of  the  sediment  obtained  by  the  evaporation  of  the 
snow,  I  became  somewhat  interested  in  the  subject,  and  made 
some  inquiries  which,  together  with  some  subsequent  work,  which 
owing  to  the  lack  of  material  and  of  sources  of  information  is 
very  incomplete,  I  venture  to  present. 

To  attempt  to  maintain  any  particular  theory  which  may 
account  for  this  phenomenon,  would  doubtless  be  a  difficult  task 
in  our  hands ;  but  by  giving  the  facts  concerning  it,  and  com- 
paring it  with  events  of  a  similar  nature  which  have  been  recorded, 
we  may  peahaps  be  able  to  draw  some  conclusions  as  to  its  prob- 
able, or  at  least  possible,  origin. 

The  specimens  of  the  sediment  obtained  from  the  snow  by 
evaporation  were  sent,  one  by  Mr.  J.  G.  Williams,  of  Saugatuck, 
Allegan  County,  Mich.,  and  the  other,  which  was  received  later, 
from  H.  D.  Post,  Esq.,  of  Holland,  Ottawa  County,  The  sedi- 
ment obtained  from  Saugatuck  was  secured  by  the  evaporation  of 
about  two  quarts  of  the  snow.  It  is  in  the  form  of  an  impalpable 
powder,  of  a  grayish  black  color,  presenting  somewhat  the  ap- 


n8  Appendix. 

pearance  of  emery,  and  containing  a  varying  amount  of  fibrous 
material. 

From  Mr.  Williams's  letter  the  following  information  is 
gained  in  regard  to  the  circumstances  existing  at  the  time  of  the 
occurrence  : 

"  The  wind  for  two  or  three  days  previous  to  the  5th  of 
February  had  been  blowing  strongly  from  the  west,  but  during 
the  day  the  weather  had  been  pleasant,  and  at  the  time  the  snow 
fell  there  was  scarcely  any  wind — what  there  was  being  from  the 
south-west.  The  ground  was  already  covered  with  snow,  from  a 
previous  fall.  Between  the  hours  of  four  and  six  p.  M.  the  large 
flakes  of  light  snow  were  noticed  to  present  a  strange  appearance, 
coloring  the  snow  as  they  fell.  This  continued  until  it  had 
reached  a  depth  of  three  or  four  inches,  when  the  wind  came 
strong,  blowing  quite  a  gale  from  the  south-west.  The  snow  then 
came  down  clear  again." 

Some  of  this  last  fall  of  snow  was  gathered,  as  was  stated, 
and  evaporated  carefully  in  a  suitable  place,  yielding  the  sedi- 
ment which  is  had  for  analysis.  These  are  the  circumstances 
attending  the  fall  of  snow  at  Saugatuck. 

The  sediment  received  from  Holland  resembles  very  much 
that  from  the  former  place,  both  in  color  and  in  structure,  and 
the  condition  of  the  weather  and  wind  at  the  time  was  nearly  the 
same.  During  the  fall  of  this  snow  at  Holland,  the  atmosphere 
was  noticed  to  be  sensibly  warmer;  at  one  locality  the  thermom- 
eter rising  eight  degrees  during  the  half  hour  the  snow  was 
falling,  falling  again  after  it  had  ceased  and  the  clear  snow  had 
again  commenced.  The  wind  was  very  light  during  the  fall,  and 
from  the  south-west.  Not  only  at  Holland  and  Saugatuck  was 
this  phenomenon  observed,  but  according  to  both  of  these 
informants  it  extended  over  a  wide  range  of  territory.  In  Mich- 
igan it  was  noticed  from  about  five  miles  south  of  Grand  Haveij, 
in  Ottawa  County,  to  Ganges,  south  about  thirty  miles,  in  Alle- 
gan  County.  Inland  it  was  noticed  at  Allegan  and  other  places. 
It  must,  therefore,  have  fallen  over  an  extent  of  from  three  to 


Appendix.  HI] 

six   hundred   square    miles    in    Michigan,    after   crossing    Lake 
Michigan. 

Our  informant  also  vouches  for  the  statement  that  the  same 
phenomenon  was  noticed  in  Illinois,  sixty  miles  south-west  of 
Chicago,  and  also  at  Janesville,  Wis.  The  wind,  at  both  of 
these  places,  being  in  the  same  direction  as  in  Michigan. 

In  order  to  confirm  this  latter  statement,  I  have  written  to 
the  Signal  Service  Bureaus  at  different  points  in  Illinois,  Missouri 
and  Wisconsin,  but  as  yet  no  reply  has  been  received. 

That  some  idea  may  be  formed  as  to  the  amount  of  this 
sediment  which  fell,  a  square  yard  was  measured  off  at  Holland 
soon  after  the  storm  had  ceased,  and  after  evaporation  the  upper 
layer  of  snow  yielded  87  grains  of  solid  matter.  Assuming  that 
the  fall  took  place  over  an  extent  of  400  square  miles,  and  that 
it  was  equal  over  the  whole,  we  may  easily  calculate  that  with 
this  fall  of  snow  there  were  precipitated  about  7,000  tons  of 
solid  or  earthy  matter. 

Having  now  the  true  facts  of  the  case,  it  remains  to  account 
for  this,  to  say  the  least,  singular  phenomenon,  in  some  rational 
way.  It  is  evident,  both  from  appearance  and  from  analysis, 
that  the  sediment  from  either  locality  is  identical  in  almost  every 
respect,  and  is  without  doubt  of  the  same  origin ;  both  have  the 
same  color;  both  contain  fibrous  matter;  and  a  description  of 
the  one  will  to  a  great  extent  answer  for  the  other.  Under  the 
microscope  the  substance  shows  itself  to  be  composed  of  organic 
and  inorganic  matter.  The  inorganic  portion  apparently  con- 
sists of  small  particles  of  silica,  some  of  which  seem  to  be  col 
ored  with  iron  and  earthy  matter.  These  particles  of  silica  have 
not  the  appearance  of  having  been  water  worn,  but  the  fracture 
of  them  is  sharp  and  well  defined,  having  all  the  appearance  of 
being  recently  broken  or  reduced  to  powder,  without  the  abrasive 
action  of  water.  There  are  also  to  be  seen  fine  threads  or  fibres, 
perfectly  transparent,  and  having  a  resemblance  to  fine  tubes  of 
glass  or  silica.  These  tubes  present  no  appearance  of  organic 
structure,  and  as  a  whole,  nothing  either  of  a  vegetable  or  animal 
structure  is  to  be  detected.  Small  particles  of  organic  matter, 


J20  ^Appendix. 

also,  seem  to  be  distributed  through  the  mass.  After  ignition, 
the  substance  turns  reddish  brown,  this  color  probably  being  due 
to  ferric  oxide.  The  organic  matter  is  burnt  off,  and  with  the 
exception  of  the  fibrous  material,  it  presents  about  the  same 
appearance  as  before. 

A  qualitative  analysis  shows  the  presence  of  silica,  iron, 
Time,  manganese,  and  slight  traces  of  sulphur.  Quantitatively, 
the  sediment  from  Saugatuck  gives  14.7  per  cent,  of  carbonaceous 
matter  and  moisture,  leaving  a  residue  of  85.3  per  cent., — 9.9 
per  cent,  of  which  is  soluble  in  acids,  and  75.4  per  cent,  insol- 
uble. The  soluble  portion  consists  mainly  of  iron,  the  other 
elements  existing  in  very  small  traces. 

The  analysis  of  the  sediment  from  Holland  yields  a  very 
similar  result,  it  consisting  of  16  per  cent,  of  carbonaceous  mat- 
ter and  moisture,  leaving  a  residue,  9  per  cent,  of  which  is  soluble 
in  acids,  and  75  per  cent,  insoluble. 

The  specific  gravity  of  the  two  specimens  is  very  nearly  the 
same;  one  being  2.063,  and  the  other  a  trifle  less — the  diminu- 
tion in  specific  gravity  of  the  latter  (that  from  Saugatuck)  being 
easily  attributable  to  a  slight  accident  in  manipulation. 

It  is  very  evident  that  in  presenting  all  the  circumstances 
and  facts  which  can  in  any  way  bear  upon  the  case,  that  the 
meteorological  condition  of  the  atmosphere,  the  direction  and 
velocity  of  the  wind,  and  perhaps  the  condition  of  the  surface, 
as  to  previous  falls  of  snow,  all  play  an  important  part  in  its 
consideration.  .  & 

The  meteorological  observations  and  reports  taken  and  re- 
ceived at  any  of  the  numerous  signal  stations,  certainly  furnish 
all  that  could  be  desired  on  this  point.  These  reports  taken  at 
Detroit  for  Feb.  5th,  at  7:11  A.  M.,  and  at  4:11  and  10:30  P.  M., 
Detroit  time,  have  been  obtained  through  the  kindness  of  the 
signal  sergeant  at  Detroit.  From  what  has  been  said  in  regard 
to*  the  state  of  the  wind  at  Holland  and  Saugatuck,  it  being  ac- 
cording both  to  the  informants  and  to  the  weather  reports  from 
VV.  S.  W.,  it  is  very  evident  that  whether  we  consider  the 
material  under  consideration,  whatever  it  may  be,  to  have  been 


Appendix. 

borne  by  the  wind,  sweeping  along  the  surface  of  the  earth,  or /{*  £  >* 
whether  it  was  carried  along  by  the  upper  current,  which  moves 
so  steadily  from  the  southwest,  it  doubtless  originated  in  that 
direction. 

It  will,  therefore,  be  somewhat  unnecessary  to  consider  the 
state  of  the  weather  at  the  time,  at  any  other  points  than  those 
lying  in  a  westerly,  southwesterly,  or  southerly  direction. 

Starting,  then,  at  the  nearest  point  where  reports  are  taken, 
which  is  Grand  Haven,  at  4  o'clock,  the  time  of  the  observation, 
there  was  a  heavy  snow  falling,  and  the  wind,  according  to  the 
scale  adopted  by  the  weather  bureau,  was  high,  having  a  velocity 
of  30  miles  per  hour.  An  hour  later,  however,  during  the  fall  of 
the  colored  snow,  it  had  decreased  very  much  in  velocity,  and  at 
10  P.  M.,  the  time  of  the  next  observation,  it  had  a  velocity  of 
1 8  miles  an  hour. 

Crossing  Lake  Michigan  to  the  west  and  southwest,  Chicago 
and  Milwaukee  would  be  the  next  points  of  observation.  At  the 
former  place  the  wind  was  southwest,  at  the  rate  of  18  miles  per 
hour,  weather  cloudy.  At  the  latter  the  wind  was  from  the  west, 
at  the  rate  of  17  miles  per  hour,  and  a  heavy  storm  falling.  At 
St.  Louis  the  wind  was  brisk  from  the  south,  with  a  velocity  of 
1 6  miles  an  hour,  and  the  weather  clear.  Proceeding  farther  to 
the  west  and  southwest,  Fort  Gibson,  in  the  Indian  Territory, 
seems  to  be  the  only  place  from  which  observations  are  reported. 
At  this  point  there  was  a  fresh  wind  from  the  southwest,  with  a 
velocity  of  10  miles  per  hour,  and  the  weather  clear.  These  re- 
ports are  all  from  the  observations  taken  at  4  P.  M.  Observa- 
tions taken  at  the  same  points  in  the  morning,  show  the  wind  to 
have  been  of  very  much  less  velocity,  in  no  case  being  more  than 
12  or  15  miles  per  hour.  In  other  words,  at  no  point  west, 
southwest  or  south  was  there  a  wind  of  any  great  force. 

The  weather  reports  for  the  few  days  preceding  the  5th  are 
taken  from  the  observations  made  at  Chicago  on  the  4th.  In 
lower  Missouri,  Ohio,  Tennesee  and  the  Northwest,  the  barome- 
ter was  stationary,  southwest  wind,  and  cold  and  clear  weather; 
in  the  lake  region,  westerly  winds,  rising  barometer  and  local 


122  Appendix. 

snow.  On  the  third,  the  wind  was  quite  high  at  Chicago,  from 
the  southwest.  At  points  south  and  west  there  seems  to  have 
been  quite  a  gale,  with  clear  weather  and  very  cold,  with  previous 
falls  of  snow.  The  full  reports  were  not  obtained  from  Chicago, 
and  the  force  of  the  wind  is  not,  therefore,  known. 

Assuming  that  we -now  have  the  main  facts  and  circum- 
stances which  relate  to  the  phenomenon,  it  remains  to  be  ac- 
counted for  by  some  rational  theory.  What  the  true  theory  is, 
it  will  perhaps  be  impossible  to  say ;  but  those  which  will  natur- 
ally present  themselves,  are  first,  Could  the  dust  have  its  source 
in  some  neighboring  manufacturing  establishment,  and  have 
escaped  from  some  high  chimney  or  smoke  stack  ? 

A  second  theory  might  perhaps  suggest  a  meteoric  origin. 

A  third  would  say  that  far  enough  southwest  to  find  dry 
prairie  soil,  neither  frozen  nor  covered  with  snow,  a  powerful 
tornado  or  whirlwind  occurred,  of  sufficient  magnitude  to  carry 
this  great  quantity  of  dust  high  enough  into  the  air  to  meet  the 
anti-trade  wind,  and  crossing  Lake  Michigan,  it  was  deposited 
with  the  heavy  snow  storm  which  fell  in  that  region. 

Again,  could  the  dust  in  question  be  derived  from  Chicago  ? 

Finally,  the  sediment  may  be  of  volcanic  origin,  borne  by 
the  force  of  volcanic  eruption  to  the  upper  current,  and  thus  car- 
ried to  its  place  of  deposit.  These  are  the  more  likely  theories 
which  are  to  be  advanced,  and  the  derivation  of  the  substance 
is  probably  due  to  one  of  these  causes. 

Before  going  into  any  discussion  of  them,  however,  it  will 
be  well  to  notice  that  this  is  by  no  means  an  isolated  case.  Phe- 
nomena of  an  analogous  nature  are  very  numerous,  and  have  been 
the  occasion  of  a  good  deal  of  investigation  and  inquiry.  By  stat- 
ing some  of  the  more  important  of  these  cases,  and  tracing  a 
similarity,  if  possible,  between  them  and  the  present  occurrence, 
we  may  perhaps  arrive  at  a  more  definite  conclusion  as  to  its  true 
cause.  It  would  be  quite  an  error  to  confound  the  phenomenon 
which  we  are  now  considering,  with  any  of  these  prodigies,  a 
great  number  of  which  are  collected  and  noticed  in  Flammar- 
ian's  work  on  the  atmosphere ;  such  as  showers  of  sulphur, 


^Appendix.  123 

plants,  frogs,  fish,  etc.,  all  of  which  are  well  authenticated.  Nor 
would  it  be  right  to  class  it  with  the  red  snow  or  "  uredo 
nivalis"  a  kind  of  microscopic  infusoria,  which  is  found  more 
especially  in  the  polar  regions.  The  entire  absence  under  the 
microscope  of  any  organic  form,  together  with  its  chemical  com- 
position, will  certainly  preclude  any  such  idea. 

We  must,  therefore,  trace  it  to  some  other  cause.  As  early 
as  Homer's  time,  showers  of  blood  were  of  comparatively  fre- 
quent occurrence.  Flammarian  notes  many  miracles  of  this  kind 
to  have  taken  place. 

In  1744  there  fell  a  red  rain  in  Geneva  which  terrified  the 
inhabitants,  but  it  was  subsequently  ascertained  that  this  tint  was 
due  to  some  red  earth  which  a  strong  wind  had  carried  into  the 
air  from  a  neighboring  mountain.  In  1608  one  of  these  pre- 
tended showers  of  blood  fell  at  Aix  (Provence)  which  the  priests 
attributed  to  diabolical  influence.  This  prodigy  was,  however, 
examined  into  very  minutely,  and  what  seemed  to  be  red  rain, 
in  reality  was  the  excrements  of  butterflies,*  which  had  been 
noticed  in  large  numbers.  Generally  speaking,  showers  of  blood 
were  not  only  red  spots  produced  by  certain  insects,  but  regular 
showers  which  the  wind  had  carried  into  the  air.  The  general 
origin,  according  to  Flammarian,  was  not  ascertained  until  the 
present  century. 

In  1813  one  of  these  strange  red  showers  fell  in  the  king- 
dom of  Naples  and  in  the  two  Calabrias.  This  was  examined 
and  analyzed,  and  a  report  made  before  the  Naples  Academy  of 
Science.  An  east  wind  had  been  blowing  for  two  days,  when  a 
dense  cloud  was  noticed  moving  toward  the  sea.  At  two  P.  M. 
the  sea  became  calm,  but  the  cloud  covered  the  neighboring 
mountains,  and  began  to  intercept  the  sun's  light.  The  town 
was  plunged  into  profound  darkness,  the  storm  was  very  great, 
and  the  drops  of  rain  were'  colored  red.  The  dust  gathered  was 
of  a  yellowish  hue,  and  contained  small,  hard  bodies  reseirbling 
pyroxene.  Heat  turned  the  substance  brown.  Its  specific  grav- 

*Flammarian,  p.  454. 


124  Appendix. 

ity  was  2.07.     Silica,  alumina,  lime  and  iron  were  its  chief  con- 
stituents.* 

It  was  not  until  1846  that  a  general  examination  of  these 
rains  was  made,  and  their  origin  found  by  following  them  into 
space.  On  May  i6th  of  that  year,  an  earthy  rain  fouled  the 
the  waters  at  Siam.  In  the  autumn  of  the  same  year,  there  was 
a  similar  fall,  accompanied  by  very  disastrous  huricanes,  which 
occurred  alternately,  or  nearly  so,  in  such  a  manner  as  to  be 
only  explicable  by  some  great  disturbance  in  the  system  of  trade 
winds.  Cyclones  swept  over  the  Atlantic,  amidst  fearful  squalls, 
whirlwinds  and  hail-storms.  A  tempest  also  prevailed  in  France, 
Italy  and  Constantinople.  The  winds  were  of  sufficient  inten- 
sity to  detach  a  stratum  of  land  in  places  where  the  surface  was 
sandy.  This  earth  carried  into  the  air  was  certain  to  be  depos- 
ited somewhere.  This  took  place  in  the  south  of  France. 
Ehrenberg,  who  analyzed  samples  of  this  earth,  found  in  them 
seventy-three  organic  forms,  some  of  which  were  peculiar  to 
South  America,  and  concluded  that  its  origin  was  in  the  new 
world.  The  interval  of  time  between  their  leaving  America, 
Oct.  i3th,  and  their  arrival  in  France,  Oct.  iyth,  was  about  four 
days,  which  gives  a  speed  of  i 8 24  yards  per  second.  The  last 
remarkable  shower  of  red  rain,  according  to  the  author  above 
quoted,  was  that  of  Feb.  i3th,  1870. 

On  Feb.  7th,  a  great  barometrical  depression  occurred  in 
England.  On  the  9th,  it  had  reached  the  Mediteranean  ;  on  the 
loth,  Sicily.  This  fall  of  barometer  was  accompanied  by  a  vio- 
lent tempest.  On  the  nth  and  i2th,  the  weather  was  calmer 
and  the  barometer  reading  increased  again,  the  cyclone  rag- 
ing over  the  desert  of  Sahara.  From  Africa,  the  hurricane  and 
cyclone  again  made  its  way  back  to  Europe,  accompanied  by  the 
sand  swept  up  from  the  Sahara.  On  the  the  I3th,  a  reddish  rain 
fell  at  Rome,  which,  upon  investigation,  was  found  to  be  sand. 

The  list  of  cases  of  this  kind  might  be  very  much  enlarged 
upon.  Over  twenty  of  these,  with  dates  and  places  of  occur- 

*Flammarian,  p.  455. 


^Appendix, 

rence,  are  made  mention  of  by  Flammarian.     These  remarkable 
cases  seem  to  have  occurred  in  the  winter  and  spring. 

Besides  the  two  causes  which  rationally  account  for  these 
phenomena — viz.,  the  cyclone  or  whirlwind,  and  the  traces  left 
by  certain  kinds  of  butterflies — a  third  cause,  says  the  author 
from  whom  we  have  so  frequently  quoted,  must  also  be  noticed ; 
viz.,  volcanoes,  the  ashes  of  which  are  sometimes  carried  to  an 
immense  distance.  Let  us  then  refer  to  some  of  the  cases  re- 
corded, which  are  easily  attributable  to  this  cause.  One  of  the 
most  remarkable  occurrences  of  this  kind  was  noticed  in  the 
parish  of  Slaine,  on  the  eastern  coast  of  Scotland,  January  i4th, 
1862,  a  full  account  of  which  is  given  in  a  little  book  on  Scot- 
tish showers,  by  James  Rust.  The  rain  which  fell  was  of  two 
kinds — that  of  common  color,  and  that  of  an  inky  nature, 
blackening  everything  as  it  fell.  A  remarkable  feature  of  these 
showers,  four  of  which  fell  during  one  day,  was  the  shoal  of 
pumice  stones  which  floated  ashore,  immediately  after  the  storm. 
Care  was  taken  to  collect  the  sediment,  in  places  where  the  chim- 
neys of  the  houses  could  not  have  produced  any  local  effect. 
Hoffman  examined  the  sediment  and  the  stones,  and  found  them 
to  consist  of  silica,  lime,  iron,  magnesia,  and  traces  of  HSSO4 
+  HC1. 

This  matter,  after  a  thorough  investigation,  was  proven  to  be 
of  volcanic  origin,  and  to  have  come  from  Vesuvius.  The  first 
eruption  of  Vesuvius,  in  79,  had  its  ashes  carried  to  Syria  in 
Asia,  and  southerly  to  Africa.  In  1793  the  volcano  Skaptaa 
Jokul,  in  Iceland,  produced  a  fearful  eruption.  It  covered  the 
island  with  pumice  stones  and  ashes,  and  these  products  were 
carried  by  the  upper  current  into  Great  Britain,  Holland,  Ger- 
many, and  in  fact  all  parts  of  Europe  as  far  as  the  Alps,  were 
covered  with  ashes. 

Of  the  active  volcanoes  of  modern  times,  those  of  the  Sand- 
wich Islands  and  America  have  been  remarkable.  During  an 
eruption  of  the  volcano  of  Cosagaina,  in  Guatemala,  in  1835, 
ashes  fell  upon  the  Island  of  Jamaica,  800  miles  eastward,  and 
the  plains  for  twenty-five  miles  were  covered  with  ashes  sixteen 


126  Appendix. 

feet  thick  ;  and  ships  sailing  over  1,200  miles  away,  were  covered 
by  the  rain  of  ashes.  The  mass  of  matter  sent  forth  was  esti- 
mated to  be  65,000,000  cubic  yards,  and  the  distance  covered 
was  estimated  to  be  two  million  square  miles.  The  Sandwich 
Island  volcano  of  Mouna  Lea  furnishes  also  some  remarkable  in- 
stances of  this  character,  and  the  ashes,  together  with  what  is 
known  as  Pelix  hair  or  spun  glass,  have  been  carried  to  immense 
distances.  According  to  Sir  Charles  Lyell,  from  an  eruption 
which  took  place  on  the  island  of  Tambawa,  lying  east  of 
Jamaica,  ashes  were  carried  over  1,000  miles,  forming  a  mass  two 
feet  thick,  through  which  vessels  passed  with  difficulty.  Notices 
and  accounts  of  the  fall  of  dust  traceable  to  a  volcanic  origin, 
throughout  Europe,  are  numerous,  and  are  easil}  found. 

Before  concluding  the  mention  of  these  cases,  however,  it 
will  be  well  to  note  one  which  is  mentioned  in  the  Jour.  Chem. 
Soc.,  Vol.  X. 

A  cyclone  which  passed  over  Africa  on  the  28th  of  Febru- 
ary, 1872,  appeared  in  Sicily  on  March  5th.  The  wind  blowing 
violently  on  the  9th,  loth  and  nth,  rain  fell,  mixed  with  fine 
dust.  The  dried  dust  consisted  of  75  parts  argillaceous  particles 
colored  by  iron,  n.6  parts  calcareous  matter,  and  13.19  parts 
nitrogenous  organic  matter.  Its  specific  gravity  was  2.52.  Ex- 
amined microscopically,  the  dust  was  found  to  contain  an  abun- 
dance of  such  organic  matter  as  hairs,  fibres,  etc.,  together  with 
five  classes  of  organisms.  To  the  suggestion  that  the  sand  might 
have  been  derived  from  the  African  Sahara,  the  author  replies 
that  his  examination  of  the  sand  of  that  desert  shows  that  it  has 
an  entirely  different  composition,  no  organisms  are  present,  and 
therefore,  in  spite  of  the  similarity  of  specific  gravity,  and  not- 
withstanding that  the  latter  contains  many  objects  well  known  in 
the  vicinity,  such  as  the  hairs  of  the  olive  leaf,  etc.,  he  concludes 
that  the  volcanic  dust  was  not  of  African  origin,  and  gives  his 
reason  for  thinking  it  to  be  derived  from  South  America. 

We  have  thus  presented,  in  a  very  incomplete  manner,  the 
facts  and  circumstances  bearing  upon  the  fall  of  snow  colored 
with  dust,  in  Michigan  and  the  West,  and  also  those  relating  to 


Appendix. 

events  of  a  similar  nature,  of  known  and  unknown  origin,  which 
are  recorded  in  history.  Some  of  these  cases  are  without  doubt 
attributable  to  the  force  of  cyclones  on  the  surface  of  the  earth ; 
others  seem  to  be  quite  traceable  to  the  force  of  volcanic  erup 
tions.  Under  which  of  these  two  causes — for  it  must  be  accounted 
for  by  one  of  them — the  case  which  we  are  now  considering  is 
to  be  classed,  remains  to  be  decided. 

Although  at  first  thought  one  would  perhaps  be  inclined  to 
attribute  its  appearance  to  the  first  of  these  two  causes,  still  there 
is  much  to  be  said  in  favor  of  either  theory;  and  although,  per- 
haps, no  conclusive  theory  may  be  decided  upon,  a  brief  mention 
will  be  made  of  those  which  at  once  suggest  themselves,  and  the 
matter  be  thus  left  for  disposal. 

Chemical  analysis  does  not  very  materially  aid  in  the  solu- 
tion of  the  problem.  The  presence  of  silica,  iron,  alumina, 
manganese,  etc.,  neither  proves  it  to  be  a  prairie  soil,  nor  does  it 
prove  it  to  be  volcanic.  Silica  and  iron  and  organic  matter 
form  the  larger  proportion  of  ingredients;  the  other  elements, 
which,  owing  to  the  small  amount  of  material  for  analysis,  could 
not  be  estimated,  being  present  only  in  traces.  The  embrown- 
ing of  the  substance  by  heat  is  due,  of  course,  to  the  ferric  oxide, 
which  by  digestion  in  HC1  seems  to  be  all  dissolved. 

Perhaps  the  solution  of  the  problem  lies  in  the  form  and 
structure  of  the  fibrous  and  hairy  material,  which  seems  to  be 
present  in  both  samples.  That  some  of  this  is  extraneous  matter 
which,  either  floating  in  the  atmosphere,  was  taken  up  by  the 
falling  snow,  or  derived  from  the  atmosphere  in  which  it  was 
evaporated,  there  can  be  no  doubt.  Prof.  Harrington,  on  exam- 
ining this  fibrous  material  microscopically,  was  inclined  to  the 
opinion  that  in  it  were  to  be  detected  artificial  fibres,  probably 
cotton  fibre ;  but  it  is  quite  possible  that  this,  if  present,  might 
originate  in  the  causes  above  mentioned,  or  perhaps  from  the 
paper  in  which  the  powder  was  wrapped.  The  appearance  of 
these  fibres  does  not  show  growth  of  any  nature.  Most  of  them 
appear  to  be  long,  hollow  and  quite  regular  tubes,  with,  of  couise, 
a  more  or  less  quantity  of  earthy  matter  attached  to  them.  In 


128  .Appendix. 

order  to  prove  the  identity  of  this  matter,  a  comparison  was 
made  with  a  specimen  of  Peles'  hair  from  the  Sandwich  Island 
volcano.  This  hair  or  fine  spun  glass  is  composed  mainly  of 
silica  and  silicates,  and  is  produced  from  lava  in  a  stafe  of  ex- 
treme fluidity,  by  the  force  of  volcanic  action,  and  the  force  of 
the  wind,  drawing  out  the  melted  matter  into  glass  threads  and 
hairs,  sometimes  smooth  and  sometimes  crisped  or  curled.  This 
comparison,  however,  was  somewhat  unsatisfactory,  as  far  as 
proving  a  perfect  identity  was  concerned.  Both  substances  pre- 
sented very  much  the  same  appearance,  with  the  exception  of  the 
earthy  matter,  which  was  not  present  in  any  quantity  in  the  val- 
canic  matter  used  for  comparison.  Upon  mixing  it  with  earthy 
matter,  the  two  substances  resembled  each  other  very  much  in 
their  nature,  both  presenting  the  same  tubular  appearance  and 
general  appearance.  In  fact,  they  were  almost  identical. 

It  was  suggested  to  compare  the  sediment  with  some  of  the 
dust  which,  blown  up  from  the  streets,  is  deposited  on  the  roofs 
of  buildings.  To  this  end,  I  collected  some  of  the  dust  from  a 
clean  place  on  the  roof  of  one  of  the  stores  on  Main  street,  and 
subjected  it  to  microscopic  examination.  It  was  made  up  prin- 
cipally of  silica  colored  with  organic  and  earthy  matter,  showing 
plainly  the  presence  of  woody  fibre,  but  presenting  an  appearance 
quite  unlike  the  sediment  in  question.  Its  appearance  under  the 
microscope,  therefore,  according  to  our  eyes,  did  not  prove  its 
identity.  It  is  certainly  quite  impossible  that  this  substance 
could  have  had  its  origin  anywhere  in  Michigan.  It  came  from 
some  point  south-west,  and  must  have  been  carried  across  Lake 
Michigan.  The  distance  across  the  lake  at  that  point  is  prob- 
ably between  sixty  and  one  hundred  miles.  From  whatever 
source  it  may  have  originated,  then,  it  doubtless  was  carried  by 
the  upper  current,  which,  according  to  Dr.  Draper,  is  perpetually 
blowing  over  most  of  the  United  States  from  the  south-west,  at 
a  height  ranging  above  7,000  feet,  and  at  a  velocity  which  is 
very  variable,  but  which  increases  with  the  height. 

On  Monday  last  the  dispatches  reported  the  wind  to  be 
blowing  on  the  summit  of  Mount  Washington  at  a  velocity  of 


Appendix.  I2g 

over  150  miles  per  hour.  Assuming  that  the  upper  current,  on 
the  5th  of  February,  had  a  velocity  of  half  this,  or  75  miles,  it 
would  have  taken  about  one  hour  for  this  mass  of  dust  to  have 
been  brought  from  Chicago.  Or  in  other  words,  if  it  had  been 
taken  up  from  this  neighborhood,  this  would  probably  have  been 
done  at  about  3  P.  M.  As  we  have  seen  from  the  weather  reports 
quoted  on  the  5th  of  February,  that  the  wind  all  through  the 
West  and  South-west  was  not  a  strong  wind,  and  as  it  is  hardly 
probable  that  this  great  mass  of  matter  could  have  been  carried 
up  by  anything  but  a  strong  wind,  its  elevation  must  have  been 
due  to  the  powerful  winds  which  were  noted  throughout  the 
West  on  the  zd  and  3d  of  February,  if  it  was  due  to  this  cause. 

Being  taken  up  into  the  upper  atmosphere  on  that  date,  it 
may  have  had  its  origin  in  the  far  south-western  or  southern  part 
of  the  United  States,  or  in  Mexico,  where  the  surface  of  the 
country  was  not  covered  with  snow. 

Reports  from  this  region  as  to  the  exact  force  of  the  wind 
we  have  nqt  been  able  to  obtain.  No  tornado  or  cyclone  of  a 
destructive  nature  is  mentioned,  however,  in  the  papers  of  suc- 
ceeding dates.  In  regard  to  the  possibility  of  a  volcanic  origin, 
the  numerous  cases  recorded  of  a  nature  quite  as  impossible  as 
this,  show  that  there  are  some  grounds  for  the  supposition  of 
such  a  theory. 

The  incompleteness  of  reports  which  would  furnish  the 
exact  circumstances  existing  at  various  localities  at  the  time  of 
the  occurrence,  and  the  very  unfinished  state  of  any  investigation 
into  the  case,  would  perhaps  hardly  warrant  the  adoption  of  any 
decided  theory.  It  is,  to  say  the  least,  a  strange  phenomenon  ; 
and  it  being  the  only  one  to  be  found  recorded  as  happening  in 
this  State,  at  least,  it  is  not  without  interest. 


ijo  ^Appendix. 


J. 


VARIOUS  EXTRACTS  FROM  LETTERS  REFERRING 
TO  THE  ACTIVITY  OF  ICELANDIC  VOLCANOES 
ABOUT  THE  TIME  OF  THE  COLORED  SNOW- 
FALL IN  MICHIGAN. 


BY    W.    D.   H  E  R  D  M  A  N. 


[Letter  from  Jon  Olafsson  to  New  York  Times  (?),  written  in  Iceland, 
June  16,  1875.] 

"  Since  the  middle  of  December  last  year,  people  have 
noticed  many  instances  of  earthquakes  every  now  and  then,  es- 
pecially in  the  eastern  and  northern  part  of  the  island.  About 
Christmas  time,  dense  columns  of  smoke  were  seen  issuing  from 
the  mountains  in  the  northeast,  just  east  of  the  Odadwhraun,  in 
the  so-called  Dyngjufjoll  or  Askja,  which  is  situated  near  the 
65°  north  latitude  and  about  50'  east  of  the  Ferro-meridian. 
After  the  middle  of  February,  an  outburst  took  place  about  *^° 
north  of  the  first  one.  There  seems  to  be  a  line  of  volcanic 
activity  from  Vatnajokull,  and  north  as  far  at  least  as  65°5o' 
north  latitude,  between  the  Jokulsa  and  Lake  Mijvata.  The 
lava  heaps,  in  some  places,  are  about  five  miles  long  and  half  a 
mile  broad ;  in  other  places  again,  as  large  as  14  miles  long  and 
from  500  to  1,000  fathoms  broad.  Several  visits  have  been 
made  to  the  fire,  but  none  by  scientific  men.  Are  there  no  en- 
terprising geologists  in  the  United  States  who  would  be  inter- 
ested in  visiting  the  places  of  the  eruptions  now,  when  they 
seem  to  have  ceased,  at  least  for  a  time  ?  There  has  probably 
never,  in  historical  times,  taken  place  anywhere  on  our  globe 


Appendix.  131 

such  tremendous  eruptions  as  in  Iceland ;  and  this  eruption 
seems  to  be  one  of  the  most  interesting  in  the  experience  of  all  Ice- 
land. The  ashes  have  fallen  heavily  on  eastern  districts,  in  some 
places  9  inches  think.  In  about  21,000  square  miles  it  is  esti- 
mated that  15,360,000  bushels  of  ashes  have  fallen.  The  ashes 
from  the  eruption  which  took  place  on  the  2Qth  of  March,  fell 
on  the  following  day  in  Norway  and  Sweden  so  thickly  that  the 
sun  became  black.  Several  districts,  some  of  the  best  of  Ice- 
land, are  destroyed,  at  least  for  some  years.  This  will  cause 
numbers  of  people  to  emigrate  next  year,  in  all  probability. 
Fresh  intelligence  from  the  fires  is  expected  soon,  and  as  a 
steamer  will  leave  here  for  Scotland  in  about  two  weeks,  I  hope 
I  shall  by  that  time  be  able  to  tell  you  something  more  about  the 
eruption." 


[Letter  from  Jon  Bjarnason  to  Arthur  Macy,  written  Nov.  27, 1875.] 

"  Prof.  Anderson  has  told  me  that  you  would  like  to  get  some 
information  concerning  the  last  volcanic  eruption  in  Iceland, 
this  year,  as  far  as  known  to  me.  The  last  letters  I  have  had 
from  home  are  dated  about  Oct.  2oth,  and  Icelandic  newspapers 
I  have  got  down  to  the  same  time.  In  these  last  ones  there  is 
nothing  spoken  of  any  continuation  of  the  volcanic  catastrophes 
since  the  middle  of  August,  when  a  new  crater  opened  in  the 
southeast  part  of  the  sand  deserts  of  Mijvata  (Myvaluorxfi)  near 
a  certain  chasm  called  Sveinagja.  This  last  eruption  was  said  to 
have  been  very  vehement,  but  how  long  time  it  lasted  cannot  be 
seen  from  the  newspapers,  and  probably  people  did  not  know  ex- 
actly when  it  ceased,  the  place  being  far  removed  from  human 
dwellings.  But  I  do  not  think  this  eruption  has  caused  any  seri- 
ous destruction,  since  it  has  only  shortly  and  incidentally  been 
mentioned  in  the  papers.  How  many  craters  there  have  been 
active  in  the  middle  and  northeast  of  Iceland  throughout  this 
year,  I  cannot  tell,  nor  do  I  think  it  is  known  with  certainty  to 
anybody  in  Iceland,  but  in  my  private  letters,  which  I  have  had 


^Appendix. 

from  various  parts  of  my  country  during  the  last  summer  and 
fall,  it  is  suggested  as  a  conjecture  most  probable  that  the  subter- 
ranean fire  has  broken  out  in  30  to  40  different  places. 

The  most  fatal  eruption  was  that  which  began  Easter  Mon- 
day (March  29),  and  of  which  you  have  certainly  read  much  in 
English  and  American  papers.  Many  of  the  best  farming  dis- 
tricts in  the  east  of  Iceland  were  partly  destroyed  by  the  showers 
of  ashes  and  cinders,  which  in  this  catastrophe  were  poured  out 
over  that  part  of  the  country. 

You  know  there  is  no  harvest  in  Iceland  at  all,  except  the 
hay  harvest,  and  the  best  part  of  the  hay  is  raised  on  small  culti- 
vated fields  in  the  near  vicinity  of  the  farm  houses.  Now,  if 
any  hay  at  all  could  be  raised  this  year  in  the  infested  district, 
the  layer  of  cinders  covering  the  fields  9  to  12  inches  deep  was 
to  be  removed  and  cleared  off.  This  was  done  in  most  places, 
and  as  is  easily  understood,  cost  the  most  tedious  and  hard  labor, 
which  indeed  in  many  instances  is  said  to  have  had  its  good  con- 
sequences, but,  for  a  great  deal  also,  was  almost  useless,  because 
the  wind  often  covered  the  cleared  fields  again  with  as  great 
quantity  of  cinders  as  before.  The  result  was  that  most  of  the 
farmers  in  these  districts  got  some — though  very  small — hay  har- 
vests, and  have  not  been  forced  to  part  with  all  their  live  stock, 
as  was  first  anticipated.  This  year  there  will  not  be  any  con- 
siderable need  in  Iceland  as  a  consequence  of  this  misfortune, 
both  on  account  of  a  liberal  pecuniary  collection  gathered  on 
behalf  of  the  damaged  people  both  inside  a^d  outside  the  coun- 
try, and  also  because  the  sheep  and  cattle  which  must  necessarily 
have  been  killed  this  fall  will  be  sufficient  to  support  them  till 
next  summer;  but  in  the  following  year,  it  is  feared,  the  bad 
consequences  will  be  visible,  and  in  the  last  newspapers  there  is 
uttered  some  anxiety  that  the  hay  raised  last  summer  will  prove 
'in  more  or  less  degree  poisoned,  and  a  very  unhealthy  food  for 
the  remaining  creatures  during  the  coming  winter." 

Madison,  Wisconsin.  JON  BJABNASON. 


Appendix.  133 

[Fi*om  the  Penny  Magazine,  Dec.  21, 1833,  p.  496.] 

"But  the  last  great  eruption  (1783)  was  the  most  terrific  of 
all  that  are  recorded.  This  proceeded  from  the  mountain  of 
Skaptaa  Jokul  *  *  At  that  unhappy  season  an 

enormous  column  of  fire  cast  its  glare  over  the  entire  island,  and 
was  seen  from  all  sides  at  sea,  and  at  a  distance  of  many  leagues. 
Issuing  forth  with  the  fire,  an  immense  quantity  of  brimstone, 
sand,  pumice  stone,  and  ashes  were  carried  by  the  wind  and 
strewed  over  the  elevated  land.  The  continual  smoke  and  steam 
darkened  the  sun,  which  in  color  looked  like  blood.  During  the 
same  summer  the  sun  had  a  similar  appearance  in  Great  Britain, 
and  the  same  obscurity  reigned  in  most  parts  of  our  island. 
Many  parts  of  Holland,  Germany  and  other  countries  in  the 
north  of  Europe  were  visited  by  brimstone  vapors,  thick  smoke 
and  light  gray  ashes.  Ships  sailing  between  Copenhagen  and 
Norway  were  covered  with  brimstone  ashes,  that  stuck  to  their 
sails,  masts  and  decks.  The  whole  face  of  the  island  has  been 
changed  by  these  terrific  convulsions,  and  Sir  Geo.  Mackenzie 
thinks  he  is  safe  in  estimating  that  one  continued  surface  of 
60,000  square  miles  has  been  subjected  to  the  force  of  subter- 
raneous fire  in  this  part  of  the  world." 


.Appendix. 


ANTIQUITIES  OF  PERU.* 


BY     J.     B.     STEERE,     PH.D. 

On  the  old  mail  route  from  the  Amazon  to  the  Pacific,  the 
tropical  jungle  reaches,  with  but  little  interruption,  to  the  village 
of  Molino  Pampa,  near  the  old  town  of  Chachapoyas,  where  the 
road  breaks  out  all  at  once  from  groves  of  tree  ferns  and  palms, 
upon  high,  cool,  grassy  plains,  with  dry  wastes  intervening,  both 
so  characteristic  of  the  Andes. 

As  soon  as  the  rainy  and  timbered  region  is  left  behind,  the 
character  of  the  remains  and  ruins  left  by  the  ancient  peoples 
who  have  inhabited  the  country,  changes.  Ruins  of  stone  build- 
ings are  found,  and  the  dead  were  buried  in  tombs  of  stone  and 
mud,  or  were  put  away  in  caves  and  crevices  of  the  rocks,  instead 
of  being  buried  in  earthen  jars,  as  on  the  Amazon. 

The  physical  characteristics  of  a  country  have  much  to  do 
with  the  habits  of  life  of  the  people  inhabiting  it,  and  hence 
much  to  do  with  the  remains  left  by  them.  People  living  in 
regions  abounding  in  stone  and  with  Httle  timber,  naturally  use 
the  materials  most  abundant,  and  leave  ruins  of  huge  pyramids 
and  stone  temples;  while  those  dwelling  in  such  heavily  wooded 
countries  as  the  Amazon,  where  stone  is  rare,  build  their  dwell- 
ings of  wood,  and  leave  nothing  to  prove  that  they  have  existed 

*The  subject  originally  treated  of  was  "  The  Antiquities  met  with  in  a 
Trip  up  the  Amazon  and  across  the  Andes  to  the  Pacific  Coast;"  but  it  seemed 
too  large  to  be  condensed  into  the  space  allotted  in  the  printed  proceedings 
of  the  Association,  and  that  part  relating  to  the  remains  of  ancient  races 
found  upon  the  Amazon  has  been  omitted. 


Appendix.  135 

but  a  few  painted  earthen  pots;  though  they  may  have  equalled 
in  civilization  those  who  have  left  much  more  magnificent  proofs 
of  their  existence. 

While  at  Chachapoyas,  I  made  a  trip  with  Mr.  Arthur  Wur- 
therman,  (then  in  the  service  of  the  Peruvian  government  as 
provincial  engineer,)  to  visit  the  ancient  ruins  of  Quillip.  We 
crossed  the  little  river  Utcubamba,  and  rode  up  the  valley  on 
the  opposite  side.  For  some  distance  the  water  had  been  carried 
out  over  the  narrow  valley,  which  was  cultivated  in  corn  and 
sugar-cane ;  but  as  we  ascended,  the  valley  became  narrower  and 
cultivation  ceased,  while  the  mountains  on  each  side  rose  higher 
and  wilder.  We  now  began  to  see  for  the  first  time  signs  of 
ancient  inhabitants.  On  the  almost  inaccessible  cliffs,  hundreds 
of  feet  above  us,  were  tiers  of  circular  and  half  circular  stone 
walls,  apparently  from  ten  to  twenty  feet  in  diameter,  and  four 
or  five  feet  in  height;  probably  the  foundation  walls  of  houses, 
the  roofs  and  superstructures  of  which  had  been  made  of  grass 
and  wood.  The  first  impression  one  gets,  is  of  the  warlike 
nature  of  the  people  who  inhabited  the  country  in  those  days, 
and  the  continual  state  of  fear  in  which  they  lived.  Their  fields 
were  in  the  little  valley  below,  and  they  must  have  spent  hours 
every  day  in  climbing  to  these  aeries  in  the  rocks.  Peru  is  now 
one  of  the  most  unsettled  and  revolutionary  states  of  the  earth, 
but  its  towns  and  villages  are  now  built  in  the  plains,  without 
walls  to  defend  them. 

The  immense  population  that  must  have  existed  here  was 
shown  by  the  frequent  tombs.  These  were  built  in  the  'shelter 
of  the  cliffs,  or  in  little  depressions  in  their  sides,  where  stones 
and  mud  had  been  carried  to  build  up  little  niches,  into  which 
the  bodies  of  the  dead  had  been  crowded.  Nearly  all  of  these 
had  been  broken  open  in  the  search  after  valuables,  and  scattered 
bones  and  bits  of  the  cotton  wrappings  of  the  dead  were  all  that 
remained.  The  caves,  that  were  frequent  in  the  limestone  rocks, 
were  also  filled  with  human  bones. 

In  a  perpendicular  cliff  on  the  other  side  of  the  river  in  one 
place  we  could  see  a  number  of  holes  like  the  mouths  of  mines, 


^Appendix. 

and  we  were  told  that  these  also  were  tombs.  The  impression  is 
forced  upon  one,  as  he  finds  such  immense  quantities  of  human 
remains,  as  well  as  signs  of  cultivation,  in  places  where  water 
must  have  been  carefully  brought  for  many  miles  for  irrigation, 
that  the  human  race  must  have  at  one  time  filled  up  and  overrun 
the  territory  of  Peru,  especially  the  country  near  the  coast,  as  it 
does  now  in  China,  making  it  necessary  to  use  every  possible 
means  for  the  support  of  life. 

The  country  became  higher  and  rougher  as  we  proceeded, 
until  we  turned  off  up  a  little  branch  of  the  river,  running  down 
between  immense  wall-like  cliffs  of  limestone,  that  seem  to  have 
been  rent  apart  to  give  it  a  passage.  The  strata  in  these  walls  of 
rock  were  most  curiously  distorted.  The  great  bends  extending 
for  miles,  the  same  layers  of  rock  at  the  higher  parts  being 
several  hundred  feet  higher  than  in  the  lower.  We  had  great 
difficulty  in  scaling  the  steep  sides  of  these  mountains,  but  finally 
found  ourselves  in  the  higher,  cooler  regions  above,  where  the 
surface  of  the  country,  though  still  rough  and  steep,  was  much 
moister  than  the  valleys  below. 

I  had  wondered,  when  below,  why  any  people  had  built 
such  a  great  fortress  as  Quillip  was  said  to  be,  in  these  almost 
inaccessible  mountains,  that  appear  from  below  to  be  nothing 
but  barren  rock;  but  I  found  there  were  great  extents  of  country 
up  here,  covered  with  a  rich  dark  soil,  which  was  in  some  places 
cultivated  in  wheat  and  barley,  the  rougher  places  growing  up  to 
thorny  bushes  that  no  where  reached  the  stature  of  trees.  Indians 
were  plowing  as  we  passed,  with  cattle  yoked  by  the  horns  to 
rude  wooden  plows  with  one  handle.  It  was  only  after  repeated 
scratchings  with  these  rude  implements  that  the  surface  of  the 
fields  took  on  anything  like  a  cultivated  look. 

These  mountains,  wherever  of  any  value,  are  owned  in  large 
estates  by  the  descendants  of  the  Spanish  conquerors,  who  keep 
a  lot  of  Indians  at  work  cultivating  the  lands  and  tending  cattle, 
while  the  proprietors  live  in  Chachapoyas,  or,  if  able,  in  Lima. 

The  second  day  of  our  journey  we  reached  the  estate  upon 
which  the  fortress  is  situated,  though  it  was  at  a  distance  of 


Appendix.  137 

several  miles  of  rough  mountain  roads  from  the  house  where  we 
stopped.  This,  a  rough  stone  building  covered  with  grass,  was 
the  place  where  the  proprietor  stopped  when  visiting  his  estate, 
and  was  occupied  by  the  overseer,  who  seemed  to  be  a  poor 
relation  of  the  proprietor.  After  a  night's  rest,  broken  somewhat 
by  the  attacks  of  garapatos  (a  peculiar  species  of  ticks,  the  bite 
of  which  produces  inflamed  and  painful  wounds),  we  set  out 
under  the  guidance  of  the  overseer  and  several  Indians,  who 
followed  on  foot,  to  visit  the  fortress.  We  had  to  cross  the 
ravine  by  the  most  dangerous  roads,  where  the  most  cautious  of 
us  dismounted  and  climbed  on  foot.  We  passed  a  low,  dirty 
village  of  stones  and  mud,  covered  with  grass,  where  the  Indians 
of  the  estate  lived,  and  after  an  hour's  riding  through  thick 
bushes,  came  out  in  sight  of  the  fortress,  a  long,  low  wall  sur- 
rounding the  crown  or  ridge  of  the  mountain.  As  we  rode  near 
it  we  estimated  it  at  half  a  mile  in  length  and  perhaps  a  quarter 
of  a  mile  in  width,  with  walls  from  thirty  to  sixty  feet  in  height: 
On  the  side  on  which  we  approached  there  was  a  peculiar  gate- 
way in  the  wall.  This  was  some  six  or  eight  feet  in  width  at  the 
bottom,  but  gradually  growing  narrower,  until  at  a  height  of 
twenty  feet  the  walls  nearly  touched,  and  had  probably  originally 
done  so,  forming  a  pointed  arch,  if  it  could  be  called  such.  The 
wall  was  of  regular  layers  of  limestone  slabs,  laid  up  without 
mortar.  The  stones  were  from  one  to  two  feet  in  thickness  and 
two  to  four  feet  in  length.  They  had  all  been  carefully  worked, 
but  apparently  bruised  into  shape  with  some  dull,  blunt  instru- 
ment, rather  than  cut,  the  corners  being  all  somewhat  rounded, 
though  the  joints  were  close.  As  we  entered  the  gateway  we 
found  ourselves  in  a  walled  passage,  open  above.  We  gradually 
ascended,  the  passage  growing  wider  and  then  suddenly  narrower 
until,  at  the  top,  but  one  person  could  pass  through  at  a  time. 
Passing  out  here,  we  found  ourselves  on  a  plateau,  stone  and 
earth  having  been  carried  up  and  filled  in,  until  the  whole  interior 
of  the  fortress  was  built  up  to  the  height  of  the  walls.  Another 
gateway  and  passage  led  up  from  the  opposite  side  of  the  fortress, 
and  opened  above  within  a  few  feet  of  where  the  one  we  had 
ascended  came  out,  making  it  possible  for  a  few  armed  men, 


.Appendix. 

standing  here,  to  defend  the  whole  fortress,  for  these  seem  to 
have  been  the  only  ways  of  approach. 

There  were  great  quantities  of  thorny  bushes  growing  over 
the  top,  but  among  these  were  many  ruins  of  little  round  houses, 
with  their  walls  of  mud  and  broken  stone  laid  up  to  a  height  of 
four  or  five  feet,  where  there  was  generally  an  attempt  at  orna- 
mentation, the  top  stones  being  arranged  in  patterns  and  figures. 
What  the  roofs  of  these  dwellings  had  been  we  could  only 
conjecture  from  the  grass  roofs  of  the  inhabited  villages  around. 
Turning  toward  the  west  end  of  the  fortress,  we  found  a  curious 
round  tower,  made  of  the  same  hewed  stone  as  the  principal 
walls,  but  larger  at  the  top  than  at  the  foundation.  It  was  thirty 
feet  in  diameter,  and  about  twenty  feet  high.  The  walls  of  the 
gateway,  where  remaining  in  place,  were  perpendicular,  and  at 
the  base  there  was  a  rude  human  face  carved  in  a  stone  of  the 
wall,  on  each  side  of  the  entrance,  (the  only  signs  of  sculpture 
we  saw.)  In  digging  about  the  base  of  this  tower  we  found 
quantities  of  broken  human  bones  and  bits  of  painted  pottery, 
and  a  foot  and  a  half  below,  a  pavement  of  stone  slabs.  Along 
the  edge  of  the  fortress  on  this  side  were  other  walls,  apparently 
of  large  buildings,  and  in  these  were  many  openings,  into  which 
hnman  remains  had  been  crowded,  the  bodies  having  been 
doubled  up  so  that  the  knees  touched  the  breast ;  and  in  this 
way  five  or  six  bodies  had  been  crowded  into  a  space  where  one 
person  \vould  have  been  troubled  to  sit  comfortably.  The  cotton 
wrappings  of  the  dead,  and  in  some  cases  the  hair  and  shrunken 
flesh,  still  remained. 

Turning  toward  the  east,  and  passing  the  place  where  the 
two  entrances  opened  upon  the  top  of  the  fortress,  we  came  to 
the  foot  of  a  second  great  wall,  like  the  first,  from  thirty  to  sixty 
feet  in  height,  and  made  like  the  first  of  large  cut  stone  laid  up 
in  regular  layers.  It  covered  about  a  third  part  of  the  space  of 
the  main  fortress,  and  had  been  filled  in  in  the  same  way,  level 
to  its  top,  with  earth,  forming  a  second  fortress  mounted  on  top 
of  the  first.  As  we  scrambled  along  the  foot  of  this  wall,  we 
found  it  had  been  used  as  a  place  of  interment,  and  apparently 
by  a  later  race  than  the  original  builders,  the  large  stones  of  the 
wall  having  been  pried  out  of  place,  and  the  bodies  of  the  dead 


^Appendix. 

put  into  cavities  behind,  the  original  stones  being  in  some  places 
put  back,  in  others  smaller  stones  and  mud  being  used.  O.ie  of 
the  Peruvians  with  us  ventured  the  opinion  that  it  was  done  by 
the  original  builders,  to  frighten  their  enemies  when  they  should 
try  to  tear  down  the  walls,  and  should  find  them  filled  with 
human  bodies.  This  second  fortress  probably  had  much  such 
an  entrance  as  the  first,  but  the  wall  had  fallen  where  it  had 
stood;  and  we  -climbed  up  over  the  fallen  stones,  to  the  top. 
Here  we  found  again  numbers  of  foundations  of  round  houses, 
and  low  walls  filled  with  niches  containing  human  remains. 
There  was  no  wall  here  on  the  north  side,  for  some  distance, 
there  being  a  perpendicular  cliff  that  defended  this  side.  We 
followed  along  this  until  we  came  to  the  north  wall,  which  was 
broken  down  where  we  reached  it,  and  descending  here  we 
followed  around  to  the  gateway  again,  where  we  had  left  our 
horses.  Mr.  Wurtherman  estimated  that  it  must  have  taken 
twenty  thousand  men  at  least  twenty  years  to  build  this  fortress ; 
but  with  the  rude  means  they  must  have  had  for  cutting  stone 
and  transporting  earth,  it  probably  took  much  longer. 

The  next  morning  we  visited  another  side  of  the  same 
mountain,  where  there  were  other  walls  and  ruins.  After  an 
hour's  ride  we  found  ourselves  at  the  foot  of  the  mountain.  For 
three  or  four  hundred  feet  it  rose  as  steep  as  is  possible  to  climb, 
but  having  a  few  rocks  and  bushes  to  which  we  could  cling;  and 
then  there  was  a  perpendicular  cliff  of  several  hundred  feet,  and 
on  projecting  ledges  of  this  were  two  walls  of  cut  stone, — one 
quadrangular,  and  the  other  crescent-shaped.  They  were  eight 
or  ten  feet  in  height,  and  had  openings  at  regular  intervals,  that 
looked  very  much  like  loop-holes.  After  a  hard  scramble  we 
reached  the  base  of  the  cliff,  and  found  ourselves  some  sixty  or 
eighty  feet  below  the  walls,  and  no  apparent  way  of  reaching 
them.  We  followed  the  base  of  the  cliff  for  quite  a  distance, 
finding  caves  filled  with  human  remains  ;  and  finally,  by  climbing 
a  small  tree  that  grew  against  the  side  of  the  cliff,  reached  a 
narrow  ledge  that  led  up  toward  the  walls.  This  was  so  narrow 
that  in  some  places  we  had  to  creep  around  projecting  points  of 
the  rock,  but  we  finally  reached  the  foot  of  the  lower  and 
quadrangular  wall.  It  was  made  of  cut  limestone  slabs,  like 


140  ^Appendix. 

those  of  the  great  fortress  of  Quillip,  but  smaller,  and  laid  up  in 
mud.  A  ledge  of  the  cliff,  not  more  than  four  feet  in  width,  had 
been  used  as  a  foundation  for  this,  the  wall  being  built  on  the 
outside  of  this,  and  leaving  barely  room  behind  for  a  person  to 
pass  between  the  wall  and  the  cliff.  It  had  been  built  up  in  this 
way  some  eight  or  ten  feet,  to  where  it  reached  the  level  of 
another  ledge  which  gave  room  for  a  superstructure,  which  was 
probably  of  wood  or  grass.  The  narrow  foundation  wall  was 
supported  by  small  pieces  of  wood,  which  were  built  into  it,  and 
ran  back  into  the  rock  behind,  where  holes  had  been  made  for 
them.  These  pieces  of  wood  were  still  sound,  though  they  must 
have  been  there  for  several  centuries,  or  at  least  from  before  the 
Spanish  conquest. 

The  appearance  of  loop-holes  was  made  by  stones  being 
drawn  back  from  the  general  .face  of  the  wall,  there  being  in 
reality  no  openings  through  it.  The  crescent-shaped  wall  was  on 
a  ledge  still  above ;  and  seme  fifteen  or  twenty  feet  over  it,  and 
sticking  out  horizontally  from  the  cliff,  was  a  bar,  that  has  a  great 
celebrity  in  the  country  about,  as  it  is  supposed  to  be  of  gold, 
and  enchanted,  etc.  As  near  as  I  could  make  it  out,  it  was 
nothing  more  than  a  wooden  bar,  that  had  been  used  to  support 
the  building  that  must  have  originally  stood  upon  the  wall,  it 
having  been  so  well  secured  in  the  cliff  that  when  the  building 
fell  it  had  remained  as  a  continual  wonder  for  the  simple  Indians 
of  the  country. 

These  ancient  ruins  along  the  Utcubamba  and  at  Quillip 
are  east  of  the  Amazon,  and  are  separated  from  the  ruins  about 
Cajamarca  and  the  coast,  by  the  central  range  of  the  Andes  and 
by  the  river  itself,  which  is  swift  and  dangerous,  and  now  only 
crossed  by  means  of  large  rafts.  Whether  they  are  to  be  classed 
as  the  work  of  the  Quichuas  or  other  coast  or  Andean  peoples, 
or  have  been  made  by  nations  coming  from  the  East,  who  changed 
their  mode  of  life  when  they  reached  these  high,  cool,  rocky 
regions,  is  a  question  that  is  still  to  be  decided.  I  have  seen  no 
account  of  Quillip  being  inhabited  at  the  time  of  the  Spanish 
conquest,  and  it  was  probably  a  ruin  then. 

The  trip  to  Cajamarca,  from  Chachapoyas,  led  up  the 
Utcubamba,  but  the  valley  was  most  of  the  time  too  rough  and 


/, 

Appendix.  .     (>^ 


pass  W 
Calle  Calle,  we  found  ruins  of  large,  buildings,  built  roughly  -of 


narrow  for  cultivation.     As  we  reached  the  foot  of  the  pass  W/>  v 


/>  v 

-  V 


boulders.     They  were  probably  intended  to  guard  the  pass. 

Cajamarca  was  one  of  the  principal  cities  of  the  Incas,  and 
the  place  where  Atahuallpa,  the  last  of  the  line,  was  put  to  death 
by  Pizarro  ;  but  there  are  but  few  remains  of  its  ancient  inhabit- 
ants. I  was  shown  an  ancient  building  which  was  said  to  be  the 
identical  room  in  which  Atahuallpa  was  confined,  and  which  he 
offered  to  fill  with  gold  vessels  as  his  ransom. 

The  building  is  perhaps  twenty-five  feet  long  by  sixteen 
wide,  and  the  old  wall  is  about  ten  feet  high  ;  but  it  has  been 
built  up  with  adobes  and  covered  with  tiles,  and  serves  for  a 
modern  residence.  The  walls  were  not  made  perpendicular,  but 
were  drawn  in  a  little  on  every  side,  giving  it  the  appearance  of 
a  truncated  pyramid.  The  stones  of  which  it  is  constructed  are 
not  squared,  but  have  an  irregular  number  of  sides,  giving  the 
walls  a  curious  appearance.  They  were  laid  up  without  mortar, 
but  the  joints  are  very  close,  and  it  has  been  supposed  that  they 
were  rubbed  together  until  they  were  fitted.  There  are  many 
articles  of  pottery  and  human  remains  dug  up  about  Cajamarca, 
but  the  valley  is  so  moist  that  such  things  are  not  so  well  preserved 
as  in  the  coast  country. 

The  greatest  amount  of  ancient  ruins  found  in  Peru  is  in  the 
rainless  district  between  the  last  range  of  the  Andes  and  the 
coast.  This  is  made  up  of  the  ancient  bed  of  the  sea,  as  about 
Trujillo,  and  of  the  valleys  of  streams  that  come  down  from  the 
mountains  behind,  and  varies  in  width  from  one  or  two  to  thirty 
miles.  It  is  now  most  of  it  desert,  the  sand  blowing  over  rnuch^ 
of  it  in  whirling  heaps.  But  there  is  every  reason  for  believing 
that  it  was  anciently  all  under  cultivation,  and  most  thickly 
inhabited.  Excavations  in  the  sand  at  almost  any  point  uncover 
great  numbers  of  human  bodies,  preserved  by  the  dryness  of  the 
climate,  like  Egyptian  mummies,  with  pots  full  of  beans  and 
corn  and  peanuts,  and  other  articles  of  food.  Besides  these 
buried  remains  there  are  immense  numbers  of  ruins  of  adobe  or 
sun-dried  bricks,  these  in  some  cases  extending  for  miles.  They 
have  stood  here  for  centuries,  with  no  rain  to  wash  them  down, 


142  Appendix. 

rounded  a  little  by  the  winds  and  moving  sand,  but  under  the 
circumstances  almost  as  imperishable  as  granite.  In  some  cases 
these  seem  to  have  been  walls  for  defense,  in  others  they  are 
great  pyramids,  while  in  others  they  are  remains  of  temples  and 
dwellings.  Little  or  no  stone  ruins  are  found  in  this  coast 
country,  though  there  is  plenty  of  granite  near,  and  the  reason 
seems  to  be  that  these  sun-dried  bricks  were  found  to  serve  as 
good  a  purpose,  while  they  were  so  much  easier  made.  The  ease 
with  which  these  buildings  were  made,  and  also  the  ease  with 
which  they  could  be  destroyed  by  an  attacking  force,  led  to  their 
being  made  very  thick  and  massive ;  and  there  are  great  mounds 
of  them  in  the  valley  between  Caliao  and  Lima,  that  are  generally 
supposed  by  travelers  to  be  natural  hills,  and  artillery  is  said  to 
have  been  posted  upon  some  of  them  in.  certain  of  the  revolutions 
the  country  has  passed  through. 

There  seems  to  be  but  little  doubt  that  this  whole  district 
was  once  under  cultivation,  as  bits  of  pottery  and  signs  of  occu- 
pation are  found  all  over  it,  while  the  steep  valleys  of  the  streams 
farther  back  in  the  mountains  have  been  terraced  up  with  great 
labor,  to  save  a  few  acres  of  ground  for  cultivation  ;  but  under 
the  present  system  nine-tenths  or  more  of  the  level  lands  along 
the  coast  are  desert.  Even  much  of  the  great  .level  valley  about 
Lima  is  waste,  and  this  is  said  to  be  from  lack  of  water.  Whether 
this  lack  of  water  arises  from  a  real  change  in  the  rain-fall  in  the 
mountains  behind,  and  a  lessening  of  the  rivers  in  this  way,  or 
whether  the  trouble  is  in  the  present  careless  method  of  distribu- 
tion of  the  water,  is  a  matter  of  doubt,  though  there  is  some 
reason  for  thinking  that  at  some  time  there  was  a  much  greater 
amount  of  rain  in  the  mountains,  and  that  the  rainy  belt 
approached  much  nearer  the  coast.  In  many  places  there  are 
torrent  beds  in  the  mountains,  where  no  water  now  flows  at  any 
season.  Much  of  the  water  is  certainly  now  wasted,  from  the 
irregular  way  in  which  the  farms  are  laid  out  and  the  carelessness 
shown  in  the  use  of  the  water. 

The  Incas  or  Quichuas  are  generally  credited  with  all  of 
these  ruins  along  the  coast ;  but  it  seems  probable  that  several 
powerful  races  have  occupied  the  coast  country  in  different  places 


Appendix.  143 

and  at  different  times,  and  that  the  Incas  were  inhabitants  of  the 
cooler  plateaus  of  the  interior.  Their  principal  cities  of  Quito, 
Cajamarca,  and  Cuzco,  were  ail  on  these  plateaus,  and  the 
remainder  of  the  race  are  now  found  inhabiting  the  cold  moun- 
tain valleys,  or  upon  the  estates  of  the  interior,  employed  as 
peons  or  serfs.  The  whole  Spanish  account  of  the  conquest,  and 
of  the  people  and  their  customs,  numbers,  cities,  etc.,  seems  a 
bundle  of  lies,  conflicting  among  themselves,  and  not  at  all 
corresponding  with  the  real  facts,  where  they  can  now  be  inves- 
tigated. This  leaves  the  question  of  the  origin  and  distribution 
of  races  in  South  America  open  to  the  theories  and  speculations 
of  every  one;  and  the  graves  and  ruins  give,  and  will  continue 
to  give  for  a  long  time  to  come,  vast  quantities  o'f  material  to 
found  theories  upon. 

The  graves  that  I  examined  seem  capable  of  being  divided 
into  two  classes;  but  whether  the  difference  was  caused  by  differ- 
ence of  race  or  difference  of  locality  and  surroundings,  is 
doubtful.  The  general  style  of  burial  on  the  plains  was  in  vaults 
beneath  the  surface.  In  finding  them,  one  generally  digs  through 
two  or  three  feet  of  sand,  sometimes  rinding  bodies  l>ing  prone 
in  this,  wrapped  in  cotton  cloth ;  and  then  coarse  mats  of  rushes 
or  bamboo  are  reached,  supported  upon  poles,  that  lie  across  the 
vault  below.  In  one  end  of  this  vault  the  bodies  are  found, 
appearing  to  be  bundles  of  cloth,  standing  on  end,  and  these 
bundles  are  often  enveloped  in  baskets  or  sacks  of  coarsely  plaited 
rushes.  Upon  unwrapping  these  bundles  the  bodies  are  found 
to  have  been  doubled  up  so  that  the  knees  nearly  touch  the 
breast.  In  the  graves  at  Pachacamac,  south  of  Lima,  there  were 
found  sticking  in  the  top  of  these  bundles  figures  to  imitate  the 
human  head,  the  face  being  carved  rudely  in  wood,  with  shell 
eyes,  and  a  shock  of  fibre  of  some  kind  being  used  for  hair.  At 
the  feet  of  these  bundles  were  generally  found  a  number  of  pots, 
often  six  or  eight,  or  more,  covered  with  dishes  made  from 
gourds  or  squashes,  and  filled  with  peanuts,  beans,  Indian  corn, 
roots  of  cassava,  and  in  one  case,  of  the  skeletons  of  a  small 
animal,  probably  a  guinea  pig.  Cotton  is  also  often  found. 
The  pots  found, "filled  with  food,  have  been  used  in  many  cases, 


144  Appendix. 

and  are  blackened  with  fire.     There   are   also    found   plates   of 
gourd,  and  rudes  ones  of  pottery. 

The  finer  kinds  of  pottery  are  much  rarer,  and  the  only 
specimens  I  succeeded  in  finding  were  wrapped  up  with  the  body. 
This  fine  black  pottery — for  it  is  nearly  all  of  this  color — seems 
,  to  have  been  in  nearly  all  cases  used  for  water  jugs  or  bottles,  to 
be  carried  about  at  the  girdle ;  and  I  have  seen  one  of  these  that 
represented  a  human  figure  with  one  of  these  miniature  jugs 
hanging  from  the  belt.  For  this  purpose  they  are  all  provided 
with  handles,  or  double  necks,  for  being  carried.  There  is  a 
wonderful  variety  of  them,  a  collection  of  hundreds  of  them 
having  hardly  two  alike,  while  they  are  made  to  represent  all 
kinds  of  animals,  fish,  turtles,  seals,  serpents,  birds,  monkeys, 
men,  fruits,  roots,  etc.,  etc. 

In  spite  of  this  variety,  there  are  several  general  forms  that 
are  often  repeated.  One  of  them  is  a  bottle  with  a  double 
throat,  that  unites  above  to  form  the  mouth.  Another  is  the 
double  jug  united  by  one  or  two  hollow  tubes ;  these  are  often 
in  the  form  of  birds  or  animals,  and  often  have  whistles  arranged 
in  the  interior  so  that  in  drinking  from  them  they  whistle. 
Another  form  is  pointed  at  the  bottom,  so  that  it  will  not  stand 
upright  unless  stuck  into  the  sand — imitating  in  this  some  of  the 
ancient  pottery  of  the  East.  Little  earthen  images  five  or  six 
inches  in  height  are  often  found.  These  are  all  alike  in  form, 
and  in  having  a  peculiar  head-dress,  and  ears  enlarged,  as  they 
are  now  found  among  some  of  the  wild  tribes  of  the  interior  of 
Peru.  These  can  have  served  no  other  purpose  than  that  of  idols. 

The  pots,  besides  being  made,  many  of  them,  in  the  shape 
of  men  and  beasts,  are  nearly  all  ornamented  with  painted  or 
raised  figures.  Some  of  them  are  covered  with  little  figures  in 
relief,  of  fish  and  birds,  the  same  figures  being  repeated  many 
times.  The  strange,  chair-shaped  marking  still  used  by  the 
natives  of  the  Amazon,  and  found  on  Chinese  and  Egyptian 
pottery,  is  also  frequent.  This  black  pottery  is  quite  porous,  and 
is  often  used  by  modern  Peruvians  for  keeping  water  cool.  Some 
of  these  pots,  at  least,  seem  to  have  been  made  in  halves,  and 
then  stuck  together. 


Appendix. 

The  art  of  working  it  has  been  completely  lost ;  and  though 
imitations  are  made  at  the  present  time,  and  colored  black,  they 
are  very  easily  known  from  the  ancient  ones.  The  style  of  burial 
and  of  pottery  described  is  found  along  the  coast  at  or  near 
Lima,  at  Pachacamac,  ?nd  north  at  Trujillo  and  Pacasmayo. 

In  the  mountains  behind,  where  the  country  was  much 
rougher  and  stone  abounded,  I  found  no  pottery  buried  with  the 
dead,  though  this  may  be  by  no  means  general.  Many  of  the 
dead  are  buried  in  little  niches  built  up  in  the  rocks,  of  stone 
and  mud.  Wherever  there  is  a  projecting  rock,  it  is  taken 
advantage  of,  and  hollows  are  dug  out  beneath  it,  where  the 
dead  are  stowed  away.  Up  the  Rimac  River,  above  Lima,  at 
Chosica,  and  still  further  up,  where  the  river  valley  narrows  to  a 
mile  or  so  in  width,  the  mountain  sides  behind  have  been  terraced 
up  for  hundreds  of  feet  with  strong  stone  walls  five  and  six  feet 
in  height,  while  there  are  remains  of  ditches  along  the  mountain 
side,  where  the  water  has  been  brought  from  long  distances  above, 
to  irrigate  these  terraces.  Besides  the  remains  of  burial  places 
in  the  rocks,  in  this  locality,  the  ancient  inhabitants  seem  to  have 
buried  in  and  beneath  their  own  houses.  The  village  of  Chosica 
was  built  on  a  steep  mountain  side  that  was  thickly  covered  with 
boulders,  some  of  them  of  great  size.  Among  these  they  built 
a  town  that  must  have  been  much  like  a  great  ants'  nest.  The 
houses  were  very  small,  many  of  the  rooms  being  six  or  seven 
feet  long  by  four  or  five  wide — little  cells,  burrowed  out  from  the. 
rocks,  or  built  up  out  of  them.  They  seem  to  have  passed  about 
the  town  along  the  walls  of  the  houses,  which  were  probably, 
from  the  remains,  covered  with  corn  stalks.  They  burrowed  out 
vaults  beneath  these  houses,  for  the  dead,  and  in  some  cases  filled 
them  into  the  lower  rooms.  These  lower  vaults  were  usually 
walled  vvith  boulders,  and  were  covered  with  flat  stones,  that  were 
bound  together  and  supported  by  other  stones  piled  upon  them 
on  the  outside,  while  a  large  central  flat  stone  seems  to  have 
covered  the  main  hole  left  for  entrance.  There  were  also,  in 
most  or  all  cases,  little  holes  a  foot  or  more  square,  that  opened 
from  the  side  into  other  vaults  near. 

In  these  tombs  the  dead  were  found  bundled  up,  as  in  the 
others,  and,  standing  up  in  one  end,   often  to  the  number  of 
10 


146  ^Appendix. 

fifteen  or  twenty.  The  bodies  had  been  doubled  up,  as  on  the 
plains,  and  wrapped  in  many  folds  of  cotton,  some  of  this  striped 
and  colored.  It  seemed  that  they  had  been  in  the  habit  of 
opening  these  tombs  and  re-wrapping  the  bodies  of  their  friends 
in  new  cloths,  while  the  faces  had  often  been  painted  red,  as  if 
the  living  had  tried  to  make  them  look  better.  They  were  buried, 
men,  women,  and  children,  indiscriminately,  each  with  their 
peculiar  arms  or  implements.  The  women  usually  had  boxes 
with  balls  of  yarn,  and  needles  of  the  spines  of  agave,  or  of 
bronze,  with  bits  of  half-woven  or  netted  cloth ;  while  the  men 
had  slings  for  slinging  stones,  about  their  necks  or  in  their  hands, 
while  we  found  one  or  two  with  dents  in  their  skulls,  evidently 
made  by  stones  slung,  that  caused  their  death.  The  men  also 
generally  wore  about  the  loins  a  leather  dress,  with  a  pocket,  in 
which  was  usually  found  a  little  gourd  of  quicklime,  for  using 
with  the  coca,  while  a  cotton  bag  at  the  side  contained  a  supply 
of  coca  leaves.  The  little  boys  had  small  slings  about  their 
necks,  while  the  girls  had  miniature  needles  and  work-baskets. 
One  little  child,  buried  in  its  mother's  arms,  was  wrapped  entirely 
in  cotton,  and  there  were  many  other  proofs  of  the  care  with 
which  the  dead  were  treated  in  those  days. 

The  most  of  these  vaults,  as  well  as  those  in  the  plains  below, 
have  been  broken  into  by  the  Spanish  and  present  Peruvians,  in 
the  search  after  valuables.  They  call  this  old  people  "  infieles  " 
— heathen — and  do  not  consider  their  graves  worthy  of  respect, 
though  they  are  descended  from  them  in  part ;  and  they  heap  out 
these  remains  by  the  hundreds,  and  allow  them  to  whiten  in  the 
sun  and  wind. 

There  is  a  place  near  Lima  where  one  passes  for  half  a  mile 
through  arms  and  legs  and  trunks,  and  grinning  heads  covered 
with  hair,  that  have  been  heaped  out  in  this  way ;  one  of  the 
most  horrid  sights  one  can  imagine.  Many  of  the  heads  of  these 
people  have  been  pressed  out  of  shape,  ordinarily,  as  it  seems, 
by  pressing  upon  the  forehead  and  the  base  of  the  skull  behind, 
giving  the  head  a  wedge  shape.  In  many  cases  the  brain  was 
crowded  out  over  one  or  the  other  ear,  giving  the  skull  a  curious 


Appendix.  147 

lop-sided  appearance.  This  custom  does  not  seem  to  have  been 
universal,  as  normal  skulls  were  found  in  the  same  villages  and 
in  the  same  graves,  with  the  ones  that  had  been  pressed  out  of 
shape. 

While  making  a  journey  over  the  Andes  along  the  route  of 
the  Lima  and  Oroga  Railroad,  I  saw  a  method  of  cultivation 
of  the  soil  that  is  probably  the  one  anciently  used  by  the  Incas, 
before  the  introduction  of  horses  and  cattle  by  the  Spanish. 
They  then  possessed  no  beast  of  burden  but  the  llama,  and  this 
animal  is  too  small  and  weak  to  have  been  used  in  the  cultivation 
of  the  ground.  When  we  had  reached  a  point  where  the  valley 
of  the  Rimac  River  is  too  narrow  and  too  cold  to  be  any  longer 
an  object  of  desire  for  the  Spaniards  and  their  descendants,  we 
found  several  Indian  villages,  the  inhabitants  living  from  their 
flocks  of  sheep  and  llamas,  and  from  little  patches  of  potatoes 
and  quinoa.  The  hill-sides  were  terraced  up,  as  below,  probably 
the  work  of  centuries  past ;  and  one  of  these  terraces,  too  narrow 
to  plough,  two  Indians  were  cultivating  with  implements  that 
looked  like  plow  handles,  being  curved  above,  to  take  hold  of, 
and  shod  at  the  lower  end  with  iron,  and  with  a  support  for  the 
foot,  tied  on  with  thongs.  They  raised  these  narrow,  spade-like 
implements  at  the  same  moment,  and  stepping  each  a  step  to  the 
right  with  military  precision,  they  set  the  spades  to  the  ground 
and  threw  their  weight  upon  them,  driving  them  in  six  or  eight 
inches,  and  then  at  the  same  moment  pried  back  upon  them, 
loosening  quite  a  sod ;  and  then  they  stepped  again  to  the  right, 
loosening  at  each  time  about  as  much  earth  as  one  would  with 
an  ordinary  spade.  An  Indian  woman  followed,  on  her  knees, 
and  turned  the  sods  bottom  side  up  with  her  hands ;  and  I 
concluded  that  I  was  looking  upon  the  identical  method  of 
cultivation  of  the  ancient  Peruvians. 


148  Appendix. 


THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  DOCTRINE  OF  SPONTANEOUS 
GENERATION. 

BY    EDWARD    S.    DUNSTER,    M.  D. 


In  connection  with  the  very  able  paper  of  Dr.  Lionel  Beale, 
on  the  nature  of  life,  read  at  our  last  meeting,  it  has  occurred  to 
me  that  a  historical  sketch  of  the  rise,  progress,  and  present 
status  of  the  theory  of  spontaneous  generation  might  be  of  value. 
We  cannot  approach  the  study  of  the  wonderful  mystery  we 
call  life  without  coming,  at  the  very  outset,  face  to  face,  with  the 
problem  of  its  spontaneous  origin ;  and  we  must  examine  and 
either  set  aside  or  accept  it,  before  we  can  make  headway  with 
the  higher  questions  involved  in  such  study.  It  is  instructive, 
also,  for  us  as  students  of  science  to  occasionally  survey  the  past, 
and  observe  the  slow  approaches  by  which  our  present  knowledge 
has  been  attained.  It  gives  us  an  insight  into  the  character  of 
our  work,  and  compels  a  higher  appreciation  of  its  positiveness, 
when  we  see  that  it  has  been  gathered  literally  by  centuries  of 
patient  and  cautious  investigation,  in  the  process  of  which  error 
after  error  has  been  eliminated ;  and  thus,  steadily  though  very 
slowly,  there  is  a  nearer  approach  to  ultimate  truth.  Such  a 
retrospect  may  well  serve  to  restrain  the  impatience  of  those  who 
are  disposed  to  scoff  at  science  by  reason  of  its  changing  phases, 
for  it  is  the  distinguishing  characteristic  of  true  science  that  she 
does  not  let  a  belief  or  theory  encumber  her  progress  when  fuller 
investigation  has  shown  that  such  belief  or  theory  is  no  longer 
tenable,  but  she  sweeps  it  away  as  remorselessly  as  the  whirl- 
wind crushes  down  the  forest  in  its  advancing  track,  and  rejoices 


Appendix. 

that  "  the  grave  of  each  superstition  which  it  lays  is  the  womb 
of  a  better  birth."  * 

I  do  not  purpose,  however,  to  enter  into  a  discussion  of  the 
arguments  for  or  against  the  doctrine  of  spontaneous  generation. 
Such  a  task  would  require  a  series  of  lectures,  instead  of  the 
limited  time  allotted  to  me  this  evening,  and  it  is  doubtful,  too,  if 
the  resulting  gain  would  be  at  all  commensurate  with  the  labor, 
for  it  is  a  question  which  in  the  nature  of  things  cannot.be  argued 
on  the  grounds  of  authority  or  of  probability,  but  must  rest  on 
experimental  evidence  alone.  In  the  interpretation  of  this  evi- 
dence, however,  we  may  with  propriety  accept  the  opinions  of 
those  who  by  long  training  in  scientific  research  are  best  quali- 
fied to  estimate  such  evidence  at  its  real  value. 

The  history  of  the  doctrine  of  spontaneous  generation  may 
be  conveniently  divided  into  three  epochs.  The  ist  covers  the 
period  from  Aristotle,  325  B.  C.,  to  Redi,  A.  D.  1668.  During 
this  epoch  spontaneous  generation  was  believed  by  all  natural- 
ists to  be  the  common  mode  of  the  production  of  a  very  large 
class  of  animals.  The  26.  epoch  extends  from  the  time  of  Redi 
to  the  experiments  of  Sen  wan  n  and  Schultze,  in  1836-7.  This 
epoch  presents  two  phases,  one  relating  to  the  generation  of 
animals  visible  to  the  naked  eye,  the  other  relating  to  the  gener- 
ation of  infusorial  animalcules  invisible  to  the  unaided  eye.  As 
regards  the  first,  spontaneous  generation  during  this  epoch  "  was 
narrowed  down  to  a  rare  and  exceptional  mode  of  the*  reproduc- 
tion of  a  few  only  of  the  most  obscure  species,  and  finally  shown 
to  be  untenable  even  for  them."f  The  generation  of  a  large 
share  of  the  entozoa  was  also  explained  during  this  period,  and 
they  were  removed  from  the  class  formerly  believed  to  be  pro- 
duced by  spontaneous  generation.  As  regards  the  other  phase 
of  this  epoch,  that  relating  to  the  infusoria,  it  may  be  said  that 

*MAUDSI,EY:  Body  and  Mind\  London,  1870;  p.  111. 

t  J.  C.  DALTON,  M. D. :  Spontaneous  Generation,  Neiv  YorkMedicalJournal, 
February,  1872.  I  am  indebted  to  this  admirable  paper  of  Prof.  Dalton's  for 
much  of  the  material  here  made  use  of,  and  I  desire  now  to  express  my 
acknowledgments  for  such  use  in  the  instances  where  I  have  not  given  the 
reference  and  page. 


ijo  Appendix. 

the  mode  of  their  generation  was  quite  fully  explained,  at  least 
for  all  but  the  very  lowest  species,  and  that  generally  scientific 
men  held  that  the  question  was  put  to  rest  by  the  decisive  experi- 
ments of  Schultze  and  Schwann,  just  alluded  to.  The  3d  epoch 
dates  from  the  year  1858,  when  the  question  was  reopened  in 
Paris  for  special  reasons  connected  with  the  study  and  theory  of 
evolution.  In  this,  the  present  epoch,  the  whole  battle  ground 
is  within  the  domain  of  infusorial  life,  and  although,  by  the 
majority  of  scientists,  the  victory  thus  far  is  conceded  to  the 
advocates  of  biogenesis,  or  life  from  preexisting  life,  a  few  still 
courageously  contend  for  the  opposing  theory — abiogenesis — life 
without  preexisting  life,  or  life  from  inorganic  matter  alone. 

\st  Epoch.  During  this  period  a  belief  in  the  spontaneous 
generation  of  many  animals  was  universal.  Even  Aristotle,  who 
may  be  considered  to  represent  the  highest  type  of  the  scientific 
culture  of  the  day,  divided  animals,  with  reference  to  their  mode 
of  production,  into  two  classes.  The  one  was  derived  by  suc- 
cession from  preexisting  parents,  life  being  transmitted  either  by 
the  production  of  living  young  resembling  the  parents,  or  through 
the  hatching  of  eggs,  or,  as  in  many  insects,  by  grubs  or  larvae. 
In  the  other  class  no  such  connection  could  be  traced,  and  hence 
they  were  considered  to  originate  spontaneously  from  "the  for- 
tuitous concourse "  of  inorganic  materials,  from  the  slime  or 
ooze  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea,  or  from  the  decomposing  remains 
of  other  animals.  Thus  the  shell-fish,  such  as  clams  and  oysters  ; 
the  sea-nettles  and  sponges ;  the  maggots  that  invariably  swarm 
after  a  time  in  dead  meat ;  very  many  of  the  smaller  insects  that 
appear  so  suddenly;  grubs,  moths,  eels  and  many  other  small 
fishes,  are  enumerated  as  originating  in  this  way.  The  idea  of 
decomposition  and  recomposition  of  organic  'atoms  was  a  favor- 
ite one,  not  only  during  antiquity,  but  down  through  the  middle 
ages.  It  finds  its  best  expression,  perhaps,  in  Aristotle's  well 
known  formula,  Corruptio  unius  est  generatio  alterius.  These 
crude  beliefs  were  not  confined  to  the  Greek  scientists  alone,  but 
continued  even  down  to  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century, 
at  which  late  day  Kircher,  the  learned  Jesuit,  declared  that  to 


Appendix.  151 

produce  a  crop  of  serpents  it  is  only  necessary  to  pulverize  one 
and  sow  the  powder  as  seed  in  the  earth.  He  further  averred 
that  fragments  of  plants  falling  into  water  became  transformed 
into' animals,  and  he  actually  figured  such  animals  in  his  book.* 
Van  Helmont,  too,  we  find  describing  a  mode  for  the  artificial 
propagation  of  mice,  frogs,  and  eels. 

With  our  present  knowledge  of  the  mode  of  reproduction 
in  animals,  we  may  perhaps  smile  at  these  crude  and  incorrect 
notions,  but  we  must  remember  that  they  were  the  best  conclu- 
sions then  attainable,  and  they  were  the  result  of  a  truly  scientific 
but  imperfect  study  of  natural  phenomena.  Dr.  Dalton  well 
says:  "Aristotle  represented  in  natural  science,  as  in  so  many 
other  departments,  the  entire  scope  and  successful  activity  of  the 
Grecian  intellect.  He  occupied  the  position  which  was  after- 
ward held  by  the  Buffons,  Linnaeus,  and  the  Cuviers  of  more 
modern  periods;  and  it  is  certain  that  the  opinions  which  he 
expressed  must  have  seemed  reasonable  from  his  point  of  view." 

It  is  not  out  of  place  to  mention  here  some  of  the  causes  of  er- 
ror which  are  now  apparent.  The  young  of  many  of  the  lower  vari- 
eties of  animals  are  so  wholly  unlike  the  parent,  that  it  was 
impossible  to  trace  any  similarity  or  relation  between  them,  until 
after  patient  observation  the  intermediate  stages  in  their  develop- 
ment were  learned.  A  familiar  illustration  of  this  is  the  larval 
form  of  the  common  butterflies  and  moths,  and  the  varied  appear- 
ances seen  in  alternate  generation  in  insects.  In  their  successive 
developmental  stages  the  animals  will  often  inhabit  different 
localities,  and  in  some  instances  even  different  elements.  The 
secretive  habits  of  many  of  the  oviparous  and  viviparous  animals 
precluded  for  a  long  time  knowledge  of  their  mode  of  reproduc- 
tion. Some,  as  for  instance  fishes,  will  migrate  long  distances, 
deposit  their  eggs  quickly,  and  as  suddenly  disappear.  After  a 
time  the  ova  are  hatched  by  the  favoring  influences  of  light  and 
heat,  no  parent  animals  being  present  in  the  vicinity.  In  others 
the  young  on  being  hatched  quickly  betake  themselves  to  a  differ- 
ent locality.  Again,  ova  not  infrequently  lie  dormant,  as  it  were, 

*  Edinburgh  Review,  Vol.  89,  p.  167. 


OF  THE 


-Appendix. 

for  a  season,  or  even  for  a  period  of  years,  and  when  finally  de- 
veloped the  parent  animals  have  long  since  disappeared  from  the 
face  of  the  earth,  and  hence  an  easy  belief  in  a  new  or  spon- 
taneous generation.*  Gradually,  however,  after  years  and  even 
centuries  of  patient  investigation,  all  these  and  the  kindred  diffi- 
culties have  been  removed  and  the  errors  have  been  explained,  so 
that  even  during  this  first  epoch  some  of  the  supposed  cases  of 
spontaneous  generation  were  removed  from  this  category,  and 
explained  in  accordance  with  the  increased  light  thus  gained. 
This  brief  survey  of  the  first  epoch  in  the  history  of  spontaneous 
generation  must  suffice.  Indeed,  thus  much  of  reference  to  it  is 
only  pardonable,  for  the  purpose  of  contrasting  the  opinions 
then  prevailing  among  scientific  men,  with  the  more  positive 
knowledge  which  now  obtains. 

zd  Epoch.  The  first  solid  and  experimental  advance  toward 
the  positive  knowledge  of  to-day,  and  the  first  distinct  repudia- 
tion of  the  doctrine  of  spontaneous  generation,  was  made  in 
1668,  by  Francesco  Redi,  the  Italian  naturalist.f  "  He  did  not 
trouble  himself,"  says  Huxley,**  "with  speculative  considera- 
tions, but  attacked  experimentally  what  had  been  considered  to 
be  particular  cases  of  spontaneous  generation."  He  directed  his 
attention  first  to  studying  the  origin  of  maggots  in  putrefying 
meat.  He  observed  that  before  the  appearance  of  such  maggots 
flies  were  invariably  to  be  seen  hovering  about  and  alighting 

*  "  A  remarkable  instance  of  this  is  the  case  of  the  American  seventeen- 
year  locust  (Cicada  septendecim),  where  a  period  of  seventeen  years  elapses 
between  the  hatching  of  the  larva  and  the  appearance  of  the  perfect  insect ; 
the  larva  all  this  time  remaining  buried  in  the  ground,  while  the  life  of  the 
insect  in  its  perfect  state  does  not  last  over  six  weeks.  A  brood  of  these 
locusts  appeared  in  the  city  of  New  York  and  its  immediate  vicinity  in  1843, 
and  again  in  1860.  If  they  return  with  their  accustomed  regularity,  their 
next  appearance  will  be  in  1877."— DALTON  :  loc.  cit. 

t  FRANCESCO:  An  Italian  physician,  1626-1697,  distinguished  alike  for  his 
attainments  in  literature  and  in  natural  history.  His  writings  have  been 
collected  and  published  in  a  single  volume.  Opuscoli  di  Storia  Saturate. 
Florence,  1858. 

**  President's  Address  to  British  Association,  at  Liverpool,  Sept.,  1870.  This 
address  has  been  published  in  many  journals,  and  also  in  separate  form. 
Nature,  Sept.  15, 1870,  p.  400. 


Appendix.  153 

upon  the  meat,  and  he  suspected  that  they  were  the  progenitors 
of  the  maggots.  In  midsummer  he  took  a  number  of  wide-mouthed 
jars,  and  placed  in  them  bits  of  flesh.  Some  of  the  jars  were  left 
open — some  were  covered  with  paper  carefully  secured  around  the 
neck.  Maggots  soon  appeared  in  the  open  jars,  but  none  were 
seen  in  the  closed  jars,  even  after  weeks  had  elapsed,  while  the 
flesh  continued  to  putrefy  just  as  in  the  other  set.  Then  using 
fine  gauze  as  a  covering  for  the  jars,  the  result  was  the  same. 
His  mode  of  argument,  therefore,  was,  •  that  the  cause  of  the 
formation  of  the  maggots  must  be  something  that  is  kept  away 
from  the  meat  by  the  gauze.  This  something  must  be  solid  par- 
ticles too  big  to  go  through  the  gauze,  for  air  and  fluids  will 
readily  pass  through.  Nor  can  there  be  any  doubt  as  to  what 
this  something  is,  "  for  the  blow-flies  attracted  by  the  odor  of  the 
meat,  swarm  around  the  vessel,  and  urged  by  a  powerful,  but  in 
this  case  a  misleading  instinct,  lay  eggs  out  of  which  maggots  are 
immediately  hatched  upon  the  gauze."  * 

These  experiments  were  repeated  with  a  great  variety  of 
substances,  and  with  various  modifications,  but  the  results  were 
uniformly  the  same,  and  so  far  as  they  went  they  carried  convic- 
tion ;  but  it  must  be  remembered  that  they  disproved  spontane- 
ous generation  only  for  the  special  cases  under  consideration. 
The  presumption,  however,  that  all  instances  of  the  supposed 
origin  of  life  from  dead  or  inorganic  matter  might  be  in  a  simi- 
lar manner  explained,  by  the  introduction  in  some  way  of  living 
germs,  rapidly  gained  ground,  and  was  enunciated  by  Redi  him- 
self as  at  least  probable.  He  even  suggested  that  in  this  way  we 
might  explain  the  generation  of  the  entozoa,  or  internal  parasites 
of  animal  bodies.  Redi  was  followed  by  Swammerdam**  and 
Vallisnieri,***  who  repeated  his  experiments,  and  the  combined 

*  HUXLEY  :  ibidem. 

**  JOHANNES:  a  Dutch  physician  and  entomologist,  1637-1681.  He  was  one 
of  the  earliest  to  make  dissections  of  the  human  body.  He  published  a  num- 
ber of  entomological  works.  His  "History  of  Insects"  was  claimed  by 
Boerhaave,  his  editor,  to  be  incomparably  superior  to  anything  that  had  pre- 
ceded it.  An  English  .translation  was  published  in  1758. 

***  ANTONIO:  an  Italian  physician  and  naturalist,  1661-1730.  He  studied 
medicine  under  Malpighi,  and  was  subsequently  Professor  in  the  University 


-Appendix. 

result  of  their  writings  was  to  entirely  subvert  the  belief  in  the 
spontaneous  generation  of  insects  and  all  animals  of  a  higher 
organization.  Since  their  day  no  one  of  any  scientific  preten- 
sions has  ventured  to  propound  this  theory  for  any  species  of 
animal  life  with  a  high  grade  of  organization.* 

The  discovery  of  the  mammalian  egg  which  dates  from  1673, 
by  De  Graaf,  of  Delft,  in  Holland,  and  the  full  history  of  its 
mode  of  development  which  was  closed  by  Von  Baer,  in  1827, 
threw  a  flood  of  light  upon  the  general  question  of  generation, 
and  stripped  it  of  the  mystery  which  hitherto  had  been  care- 
lessly supposed  to  surround  it  in  the  highest  orders  of  animals, 
especially  in  man  himself.  Its  bearing,  too,  upon  our  subject  is 
obvious.  In  this  way  "  spontaneous  generation  lost  its  rank  as  a 
great  natural  division  of  the  reproductive  function ;  and  came  to 
be  regarded  as  an  exceptional  phenomenon,  confined  to  a  very 
few  species  whose  existence  could  not  be  accounted  for  in  the 
ordinary  way.  Its  territory  was  narrowed  exactly  in  proportion 
as  the  knowledge  of  natural  history  advanced  ;  and  it  became 
reduced  almost  exclusively  to  the  class  of  animals  known  as 
entozoa  or  internal  parasites."** 

These  are  organisms,  some  of  them  microscopic  in  size,  that 
live  within  and  prey  upon  the  bodies  of  other  animals.  They 
are  found  in  special  habitats  or  organs,  and  each  species  of  ani- 
mal has  its  own  particular  parasite.  Thus,  confining  our  illus- 
trations to  a  few  only  of  those  met  with  in  the  human  body,  we 
may  notice  the  different  varieties  of  solid  and  hollow  worms 
(sterelmintha  and  calelmintha)  that  infest  different  portions  of 
the  alimentary  canal ;  the  trichina  spiralis  that  dwells  in  muscle; 

at  Padua,  and  was  especially  celebrated  for  his  researches  into  the  various 
systems  of  generation.  His  works  were  published  in  three  volumes  folio,  at 
Venice,  1733. 

*  MB.  CBOSSE'S  electrical  spiders  (Sequel  to  Vestiges  of  Creation),  a  kind  of 
"  microscopic  porcupine,"  which  he  asserts  were  developed  in  a  solution  of 
silicate  of  potash,  through  which  the  constant  galvanic  current  was  continu- 
ously passed  for  two  years,  are  unworthy  the  dignity  of  a  serious  refutation. 
A  writer  in  the  Edinburgh  Magazine,  April,  1867,  humorously  depicts  this,  and 
very  appropriately  too,  as  a  most  singular  case  of  delusion. 

**  DAI/TON  :  loco  citato,  p.  121 


Appendix. 

the  strongylus  gigas  that  makes  its  abode  only  in  the  hilum  of 
the  kidney;  then  there  are  others  peculiar  to  the  brain,  the  liver, 
cellular  tissue,  etc.  These  creatures  long  puzzled  and  completely 
defied  the  naturalists  in  their  efforts  to  explain  the  mode  of  their 
origin,  and  it  is  a  curious  study  now  to  look  at  the  shifting  opin- 
ions which  from  time  to  time  have  been  entertained  regarding 
them.  To  illustrate :  Linnaeus,  the  celebrated  naturalist,  thought 
that  the  internal  parasites  were  terrestrial  or  aquatic  animals  that 
had  been  swallowed  with  the  food  or  drink.  Bremser  and  Rudolphi, 
after  twelve  years  of  research,  disproved  this  by  showing  that  there 
was  nothing  in  common  in  organization  between  such  parasites 
and  any  known  species.  Boerhaave  suggested  that  there  was 
some  metamorphosis  or  monstrous  growth  that  occurred  in  them 
in  their  new  and  unaccustomed  habitats.  This  was  a  leaning 
toward  the  truth,  for  we  do  find  remarkable  changes  in  successive 
stages  of  development,  but  the  error  was  in  the  starting  point. 

Without  dwelling  further  upon  their  opinions  or  without  an 
attempt  to  detail  the  progress  of  the  study,  it  is  sufficient  for  my 
purpose  to  say  that  at  last  all  these  parasites  were  found  to  come 
from  eggs,  and  in  turn  to  produce  young  by  sexual  generation.* 
Years  upon  years  of  the  closest  investigation  were  necessary  to 
complete  this  study,  and  the  nature  of  the  difficulties  to  be  con- 
tended with  were  such  that  it  seemed  almost  impossible  to  over* 
come  them.  This  is  well  illustrated  by  the  cysticerci,  the  inter- 
mediate stage  or  larval  forms  in  the  development  of  the  tape- 
worms. They  live  in  a  closed  cyst  in  the  solid  tissues,  and  they 
are  absolutely  sexless  and  unprovided  with  generative  apparatus. 
To  connect  them,  then,  with  the  mature  parasite,  which  lives  in 
the  alimentary  canal  alone,  was  a  difficult  task.  The  painstaking 

*  As  late  as  1858,  Pouchet,  the  uncompromising  advocate  of  the  theory 
of  spontaneous  generation,  questioned  the  truth  of  these  discoveries  in  the 
generation  of  parasites.  Says  the  writer  in  the  Edinburgh  Review  (loc.  dt.\ 
"  like  a  true  Frenchman  of  the  feebler  sort  he  says,  "  tant  pis  pour  les  faits  /" 
and  rejects  the  facts  which  reject  his  hypothesis.  He  doubts  the  truth  of 
these  discoveries,  "  the  monopoly  of  which."  he  naively  says,  "  has  by  a  sing- 
ular anomaly  belonged  to  foreigners."  This  reminds  one  of  the  pious  patri- 
otism of  Lamartine,  who  said  that  when  God  has  a  noble  idea  to  vouchsafe 
to  mankind  He  always  puts  it  first  into  the  brain  of  a  Frenchman. 


156  Appendix. 

labors  of  the  helminthologists  finally  determined  the  mode  of 
their  origin,  and  completed  the  record  of  their  natural  history, 
by  showing  that,  for  the  full  round  of  their  development  two 
animals  are  necessary.  The  second  of  these  usually  stands  to 
the  first  in  the  relation  of  prey  or  food.  The  mature  parasite 
lays  eggs  in  the  alimentary  canal  of  the  first  animal.  These 
ova  are  swept  out  with  the  alvine  discharges,  and  through  the 
medium  of  surface  water  or  herbage,  some  of  them  find  their 
way  into  the  alimentary  canal  of  the  second  animal.  Here  the 
ova  find  conditions  favorable  to  the  first  stage  of  their  develop- 
ment, and  they  are  now  provided  with  a  boring  apparatus  by 
which  they  make  their  way  through  the  walls  of  the  canal,  and 
travel  long  distances,  finally  to  ensconce  themselves  in  the  solid 
tissues  where  they  become  encysted.  The  second  animal  being 
killed,  its  flesh  is  eaten  by  the  first.  The  cyst  wall  is  digested, 
and  the  cysticercus,  thus  freed  from  its  environment,  now  finds 
the  appropriate  nidus  for  the  final  stage  in  its  development. 
Thus  each  taenia  has  its  own  cysticercus  whose  distinctive 
characteristics  can  be  recognized  under  the  microscope,  and 
furthermore  the  taenia,  peculiar  to  one  species  of  animals,  is 
never  found  infesting  any  other  species.* 

One  can  never  sufficiently  admire  the  splendid  patience  of 
such  men  as  Diezing,  Kuchenmeister,  Haubner,  Von  Siebold, 
Leuckart,  Van  Beneden  and  others,  who  almost  literally  devoted 
their  lives  to  these  studies.  The  details  of  their  experiments, 
both  on  man  and  on  the  lower  animals,  and  their  cautious,  long- 
continued,  and  at  times  unpromising  researches,  form  one  of  the 
most  entertaining  as  well  as  instructive  chapters  in  the  whole  re- 
cord of  natural  history  study.f  These  labors,  it  is  true,  were 


*  Van  Beneden's  little  book,  Animal  Parasites  and  Messmates,  published 
since  this  lecture  was  given,  furnishes  for  the  English  reader  an  excellent  ac- 
count of  the  development  and  migrations  of  these  entozoa.    New  York  :  D. 
Appleton  <fc  Co.,  1876. 

t  An  amusing  illustration  of  the  precision  of  the  results  obtained  by  these 
investigators  is  found  in  the  well-known  narrative  of  Van  Beneden*  in  his 
monograph  upon  Intestinal  Worms.  For  the  purpose  of  illustrating  the 

*  VAN  BENEDEN:  Memoire  sur  les  Vers  Intestinaux,Pa,ris,  1858,  p.  155,  and 
Animal  Parasites  and  Messmates,  pp.  71  and  222. 


Appendix. 

not  completed  during  the  epoch  under  consideration,  but  during 
it,  the  presumption  was  clearly  established  that  on  fuller  investi- 
gation a  solution  would  be  found  of  all  cases  that  had  hitherto 
baffled  detection.  The  latest  of  these  investigations  worthy  of 
note  are  those  of  Leuckart  (1856-7)  and  Virchow  (1858)  upon 
the  trichina  spiralis  ;  and  they  have  confirmed  in  a  very  positive 
manner  the  opinion  just  stated,  for  it  is  a  reasonable  and  almost 
universally  admitted  canon  in  scientific  study  that  it  is.  more 
probable  that  a  law  which  is  known  to  be  without  exception  in 
phenomena,  which  we  can  clearly  trace,  extends  to  similar  phe- 
nomena not  yet  fully  explained,  rather  than  that  a  new  law 
should  now  come  into  play.  This,  of  course,  does  not  exclude 
the  possibility  of  a  new  law,  and  the  true  scientist  will  cheerfully 
accept  such  a  law,  whenever  by  observation,  comparison  and  ex- 
periment its  correctness  is  established. 

2d  Epoch  (continued}.  The  other  phase  of  the  epoch  under 
consideration  relates  solely  to  the  origin  of  infusorial  life.  The 
microscope  had  been  of  great  service  in  enabling  scientists  to 
account  for  the  mode  of  generation  in  known  animals,  but  with 
all  this  extension  of  knowledge  it  had  also  brought  into  view  a 
new  outlying  territory  which  swarmed  with  animal  life  in  num- 
bers and  kind  before  unsuspected.  These  are  the  infusoria — first 
discovered  by  Leeuwenhoek  in  1675  an<^  called  by  him  anima- 

. 
migration  of  parasites — a  subject  just  then  being,  established — he  took  with 

him  from  Louvain  to  Paris  four  pups  which  he  had  reared.  Two  of  them  he 
had  fed  upon  the  cysticercus  cellulosus  of  the  rabbit,  the  larval  form  of  the 
tcenia  serrata  of  the  dog.  These  pups  he  presented  to  a  commission 
of  scientists  (Valenciennes,  Milne  Edwards,  Quatrefages  and  Jules  Haime) 
saying :  In  two  of  these  dogs  you  will  find  not  a  single  specimen  of 
tcenia  serrata,  in  the  other  two  you  will  find  many;  and  furthermore,  in  this 
one  you  will  find  specimens  in  four  different  stages  of  development,  while  in 
that  one  you  will  find  them  only  in  three  stages,  and  the  number  of  speci- 
mens in  this  dog  is  much  greater  than  in  that  one.  The  pups  were  then  killed 
and  his  statements  were  proved  to  be  absolutely  correct.  In  one  dog,  how- 
ever, some  tceniae  cucumerinae  were  found,  and  Van  Beneden  frankly  owned 
lie  could  not  tell  where  they  came  from.  Since  then  it  has  been  discovered 
that  they  originate  from  an  acarus,  the  trichodcctes,  which  lives  in  the  hair  of 
dogs  and  which  is  infested  by  the  scolex  of  this  variety  of  tape- worm.  The 
dog  licking  its  hair  swallows  the  acarus  and  thus  infects  itself  very  much  in 
the  manner  in  which  a  horse  is  infected  with  bots,  by  licking  up  the  eggs  of 
the  oestrus  or  gad  fly. 


258  -Appendix. 

cules.  In  1764  Wiesberg  gave  them  the  name  which  they  now 
bear ;  this  designation  was  made  from  the  fact  that  they  are  al- 
ways found  in  stagnant  water  and  in  infusions  of  both  animal  and 
vegetable  materials  after  short  standing.  Subsequently  they  were 
studied  by  many  observers,  but  it  is  to  Ehrenberg*  and  Dujar- 
din**  that  we  are  indebted  for  the  most  systematic  description  of 
them,  and  their  great  works  figure  hundreds  of  varieties.  The 
almost  illimitable  numbers,  the  great  diversity  of  form  and  of 
organization,  as  well  as  the  combined  bulk  of  these  microscopic 
beings  are  almost  beyond  conception.  We  now  know  that  there 
are  geological  deposits  of  great  size  in  different  portions  of  the 
earth's  crust  that  consist  almost  exclusively  of  the  calcareous 
and  silicious  shells  of  these  minute  beings.  Indeed  Ehrenberg 
himself  regarded  them  '*  as  forming  by  far  the  greatest  number 
and  perhaps  also  the  largest  mass  of  living  animal  organisms  on 
the  surface  of  the  globe"f  The  rapidity  of  their  development 
is  something  wonderful,  and  being  also  infinitesimal  in  size  their 
mode  of  procreation  was  beyond  the  reach  of  the  microscopes  of  the 
day,  and  it  is  no  surprise  to  learn  that  the  old  doctrine  of  spon- 
taneous generation  was  again  invoked  to  account  for  their  origin. 
This  was  done  in  1748  by  Needhamfff  and  BufTon,  who  "  led 
by  certain  theoretical  considerations  doubted  the  applicability  of 
Redi's  hypothesis  to  the  infusorial  animalcules,  and  Needham 
endeavored  to  bring*  the  question  to  an  experimental  test."ff 
Taking  the  juices  of  meats  which  had  been  extracted  at  a  high 
temperature  he  enclosed  them  in  glass  vials,  also  previously  heat- 
ed, corked  them  tightly  and  set  them  aside  to  cool.  After  a  few 

*  Die  Infusionsthierchen,  als  vollkommene  Organismen.    Leipzig,  1858. 
**  Histoire  Naturelle  des  Zoophytes  Infusoires.    Paris,,  1841. 
t  D  ALTON  :  loc.  cit.  p.  127. 
ft  HUXLEY  :  loc  cit. 

ttt  JOHN  TUBERVILLE  :  an  English  naturalist,  1713-1784.  He  was  edu- 
cated in  the  Roman  Catholic  faith  and  became  a  priest  in  that  church,  his  life 
being  mostly  spent  on  the  Continent.  He  was  Director  of  the  Academy  of 
Maria  Theresa,  at  Brussels.  He  devoted  himself  to  scientific  investigations 
in  connection  with  his  work  in  teaching,  and  published  many  papers.  His 
principle  work  was  a  Treatise  on  Generation,  published  in  French,  the  year 
previous  to  his  death. 


Appendix, 

days  he  invariably  found  in  the  vials  infusoria  present  in  great 
and  constantly  increasing  numbers.  His  argument  then  was  that 
if  they  were  produced  from  germs,  the  germs  must  exist  either  in 
the  substance  which  had  been  boiled,  the  water  in  which  it  was 
boiled,  or  in  the  air  enclosed  in  the  vial.  Now  boiling  destroys 
the  vitality  of  all  germs,  hence  no  infusoria  should  be  developed 
in  his  infusions.  But  they  were  invariably  present  in  his  vials 
and  accordingly  he  assumed  that  they  were  generated  by  a  reor- 
ganization of  the  dead  animal  matter.  But  as  Huxley  says,  most 
eloquently,  "the  great  tragedy  of  science — the  slaying  of  a  beau- 
tiful hypothesis  by  an  ugly  fact — which  is  so  constantly  being 
enacted  under  the  eyes  of  philosophers,  was  played  almost  imme- 
diately for  the  benefit  of  Buffon  and  Needham." 

The  Abbe  Spallanzini*  thought  that  Needham's  experiments 
had  not  been  conducted  with  sufficient  care  and  precision,  as  no 
account  had  been  taken  of  the  absolute  temperature  to  which  the 
flasks  and  infusions  had  been  subjected,  nor  had  the  mouths  of 
the  flasks  been  absolutely  closed  from  contact  with  the  external 
air.  He  therefore  took  glass  flasks  partly  filled  with  organic  in- 
fusions, and  after  closing  them  by  hermetically  sealing  up  the 
necks,  exposed  them  to  the  temperature  of  boiling  waterf  for  an 

*  LAZZARO  :  an  Italian  physician,  born  in  the  duchy  of  Modena,  1729,  died 
at  Pavia,  1799.  He  was  educated  at  Bologna,  where  he  subsequently  became 
a  Professor,  and  still  later  he  was  appointed  to  the  Chair  of  Natural  History 
in  the  University  at  Pavia.  He  was  one  of  the  most  eminent  men  of  his  day, 
an  honorary  member  of  nearly  all  the  learned  societies  of  Europe,  and  uni- 
versally held  in  the  highest  esteem.  His  scientific  studies  were  principally 
in  physiology,  especially  of  the  lower  animals;  and  by  these  studies  which 
have  been  incorporated  into  the  text-books,  his  name  is  more  familiar  to 
the  medical  student  of  to-day  than  that  of  many  other  recent  observers.  He 
refused  offers  of  Professorships  in  a  number  of  the  prominent  institutions  of 
the  time,  among  them  the  Jardin  des  Plantes  in  Paris. 

t  Various  expedients  for  ridding  the  flasks  of  any  existing  infusoria  or 
germs  have  been  adopted  by  different  experimenters.  Those  usually  em- 
ployed are 

1.  Calcination— causing  air  to  pass  through  red-hot  tubes. 

2.  Filtration— passing  air  through  any  substance  which  shall  catch  and 
retain  all  foreign  matters. 

3.  $M&mtence-^-allowing  the  particles  to  settle  by  gravity. 

4.  Expulsion— driving  out  air  and  particles  contained  therein  by  hermet- 
ically sealing  neck  of  flask  while  contents  are  in  an  active  state  of  ebullition. 

Two  or  even  more  of  these  methods  may  of  course  be  combined  in  a  sin- 
gle experiment.  The  great  difficulty  of  excluding  all  germs  from  the  flasks  by 


160  Appendix. 

hour.  Then  setting  them  aside  at  ordinary  temperatures,  which 
are  favorable  to  the  generation  of  infusoria,  even  after  the  lapse 
of  months  not  a  trace  of  animal  life  could  be  found  on  breaking 
the  flasks.  This  was  in  the  year  1775.  But  Needham  was  not 
satisfied  with  these  results,  and  with  a  show  of  reason  claimed 
that  such  a  prolonged  boiling  would  destroy  not  only  germs,  but 
the  germinative,  or  as  he  called  it  "  vegetative  force"  of  the  in- 
fusion itself.  Spallanzini  easily  disposed  of  this  objection  by 
showing  that  when  the  infusions  were  again  exposed  to  the  air, 
no  matter  how  severe  or  prolonged  the  boiling  to  which  they 
had  been  subjected,  the  infusoria  reappeared.  His  experiments 
were  made  in  great  numbers,  with  different  infusions,  and  were 
conducted  with  the  utmost  care  and  precision.  The  result  seem- 
ed convincing  and  was  in  substance  that  whenever  animalcules 
were  found  in  infusions  which  had  been  exposed  to  great  heat, 
they  "are  not  produced  there  because  their  germs  have  resisted 
this  temperature  or  because  they  have  been  generated  spontane- 
ously ;  but  because  new  germs  have  been  introduced  into  the  in- 
fusion from  the  atmosphere  after  the  boiling  has  ceased." 

The  naturalists  of  this  period  almost  without  exception  ac- 
ceded to  these  conclusions,  doubt  being  entertained  on  a  single 
point  only.  Oxygen  had  been  discovered  by  Priestley  in  1774, 
and  its  relation  to  the  maintenance  of  life  was  for  many  years 
carefully  studied  by  the  physiologists.  Now,  might  not  the  oxy- 
gen in  the  air  of  the  flasks  have  been  in  some  way  altered  by  the 
high  temperatures,  and  might  not  a  renewal  of  oxygen  be  neces- 
sary to  the  development  of  life  under  any  circumstances  ?  This 
certainly  seemed  reasonable,  and  so  it  became  necessary  to  repeat 
the  experiments  under  conditions  which  would  obviate  these  ob- 
jections. This  was  done  in  1836  and  1837  by  Schultze  and 

any  method— even  on  the  assumption  that  all  those  preexisting  within  have 
been  destroyed— may  be  appreciated  when  we  recall  the  extremely  minute 
size  even  of  the  fully  developed  parent  animal.  The  monas  crepusculum  for 
instance  is  so  small  that  eight  millions  of  them  would  occupy  a  space  no 
larger  than  a  grain  of  mustard  seed,  and  Prof.  Owen  has.  calculated  that  a  sin- 
gle drop  of  water  may  contain  five  hundred  millions  of  them.  Such  organ- 
isms would  pass  readily  through  imperceptible  cracks  or  pores  with  changes 
in  the  temperature  of  the  surrounding  atmosphere. 


^Appendix.  261 

Schwann,  respectively.  The  first  experimenter  arranged  his  flasks 
with  tubes  bent  at  right  angles  and  sealed  to  the  stopper.  To 
these  tubes  were  attached  a  series  of  bulbs,  which  contained  on 
one  side  anhydrous  sulphuric  acid  and  on  the  other  a  strong  so- 
lution of  caustic  potash.  Air  was  then  by  suction  daily  drawn 
into  the  flasks, passing  in  through  the  acid  and  emerging  from  the 
potash  side.  This  process  was  continued  for  months  (May  to 
September)  and  no  trace  of  infusoria,  confervas  or  fungi  was 
found  in  the  fluids.  Schwann's  experiments  varied  from  Schul- 
tze's  in  that  he  passed  air  in  through  a  series  of  bent  tubes, which 
were  heated  up  to  600°  F.  The  results,  however,  were  the  same, 
and  in  both  cases  it  was  proven  that  the  air  or  oxygen  had  un- 
dergone no  change.  Thus  it  seemed  clear  that  whenever  life 
made  its  appearance  in  the  infusions  in  closed  flasks  it  was  pro- 
duced by  germs  introduced  from  without,  and  in  the  experiments 
under  consideration,  the  germs  in  the  atmosphere  (if  there  were 
any)  were  destroyed  by  the  acid  and  the  calcination. 

These  experiments  were  accepted  almost  universally  as  de- 
monstrative of  the  incorrectness  of  the  theory  of  spontaneous 
generation  and  it  may  be  said  with  propriety  that  within  a  few 
years  subsequently  the  question  was  deemed  to  have  been  put  to 
rest  for  all  time.  But  a  rigorous  analysis  of  the  evidence  shows, 
as  Prof.  Huxley  has  very  justly  pointed  out,  that  this  conclusion 
is  not  warrantable.  All  that  the  experiments  really  proved  was 
"  that  the  treatment  to  which  the  contents  of  the  flasks  had  been 
submitted  had  destroyed  something  that  was  essential  to  the  de- 
velopment of  life.  This  something  might  be  solid,  fluid  or  gas- 
eous ;  that  it  consisted  of  germs  remained  only  a  hypothesis  ot 
more  or  less  probability,"  and,  no  one,  it  must  be  remembered, 
had  ever  yet  seen  the  germs.  Helmholtz,  in  1843,  by  his  experi- 
ments narrowed  this  issue  by  showing  that  the  interposition  of  a 
membrane  between  a  putrefying  (swarming  with  life)  solution 
and  one  that  is  simple  putrescible  prevents  the  development  of 
organisms  in  the  latter.  The  cause  of  the  development  must 
therefore  be  something  that  cannot  pass  through  the  membrane. 

But  gases  and  fluids  can  readily  pass  through,  and  hence  it  fol- 
ii 


2-62  .Appendix. 

lows  that  it  must  be  either  a  colloid  or  solid  matter.  Next  in 
point  of  order  Drs.  Schroeder  and  Von  Dusch*  helped  clear  up 
up  this  point  by  showing  that  the  simple  exclusion  of  air  from  an 
infusion  by  a  plug  of  cotton  wool  prevented  both  fermentation 
and  development  of  organisms ;  and  finally  Tyndall  settled  the 
matter  definitely  by  showing  that  ordinary  air  is  full  of  solid 
particles  of  matter,  and  that  they  are  entirely  strained  out  by 
filtration  through  the  plug  of  wool.  It  only  remains,  therefore, 
to  prove  that  among  these  particles  are  germs  which,  under  ap- 
propriate conditions,  are  capable  of  being  developed  into  animal 
life.  "  This,"  says  Huxley,  "  was  done  by  M.  Pasteur,  in  those 
beautiful  researchest  which  will  ever  render  his  name  famous, 
and  which,  in  spite  of  all  attacks  upon  them,  appear  to  me  to  be 
models  of  accurate  experimentation  and  logical  reasoning."  In 
point  of  time,  however,  this  demonstration  was  not  made  until 
the  third  or  last  epoch  in  the  history  of  spontaneous  generation. 

yi  Epoch.  This  dates  from  the  year  1858,  when  the  ques- 
tion— which  by  general  consent  had  been  considered  as  closed — 
was  reopened  Paris  by  Pouchet,  the  distinguished  naturalist  of 
Rouen.  He  sent  a  communication  to  the  French  Academy  in 
which  he  declared  that  he  had  experimentally  proven  the  truth 
of  spontaneous  generation,  and  in  the  following  year  he  pub- 
lished his  well-known  work  on  the  subject. J  It  may  be  well  to 
note  just  here,  as  bearing  upon  the  reliability  of  his  evidence  and 
arguments,  that  he  was  undoubtedly  influenced  by  a  motive,  for 
in  a  preface  by  him  to  Pennetier's  work  on  the  origin  of  life,  he 
says:  "For  all  reflecting  minds  heterogenous  production  is  a 
logical  consequence  of  the  appearance  and  ascending  develop- 
ment of  organized  beings  upon  the  globe. "§  Furthermore,  in 
the  very  opening  paragraph  of  the  preface  to  his  own  book,  he 
uses  this  expression  :  "When  by  meditation  it  was  evident  to  me 
that  spontaneous  generation  was  one  of  the  means  employed  by 

*  Annal.  de  Ohimie,  tome  XLI.,  1854,  and  Chemical  News,  Vol.  V.,  1X(>2. 

t  PROF.  TYNDALL,,  somewhat  enthusiastically  says,  that  his  "  labors  in 
connexion  with  this  subject  may  be  fitly  called  immortal."— Lancet,  Februa- 
ry 12,  1K7«,  p.  2<>2. 

i  llvteroyenie ;  on  Traite  de  la  Generation  spontanee,  base  sur  des  Nouvelles 
Experiences.  Paris,  1859. 

§  Quoted  by  Dalton,  loc.  cit. 


^Appendix.  163 

matter  for  the  production  of  living  beings,  etc."  This  motive  it 
is  easy  to  see  grew  out  of  the  tendency  of  the  geological  studies  of 
the  day,  which  show  that  the  earliest  remains  of  animal  forms 
found  in  the  earth's  crust  belong  to  the  lower  orders  and  gradu- 
ally ascend  in  successive  epochs  to  man.  Hence  it  was  an  easy 
— I  do  not  say  legitimate — inference,  that  the  higher  orders  had 
been  gradually  evolved  out  of  the  lower.  And  as  the  deepest 
and  oldest  geological  strata  show  no  organic  remains  it  is  a  fair 
assumption  that  at  some  time  in  the  great  past  there  was  no  life 
on  the  globe  ;  and  lience  another  easy  inference,  that  the  first 
living  beings  which  appeared  were  produced  by  spontaneous  gen- 
eration. This  is  the  gist  of  the  evolution  theory  and  as  an  induc- 
ing motive  in  Pouchet's  advocacy  of  spontaneous  generation  it  is 
worthy  of  remembrance ;  for  let  me  again  remind  you  that  such 
a  question  cannot  in  the  nature  of  things  be  argued  on  the  ground 
of  probability,  but  must  be  determined  solely  by  experimental 
evidence. 

Pouchet  further  asserted  that  he  had  repeated  Schultze's  ex- 
periments with  every  possible  precaution,  but  with  totally  differ- 
ent results.  These  assertions  attracted  much  attention,  and  a  few 
scientists  sided  with  him,  though  the  majority  and  among  them 
the  most  of  the  leading  physiologists  opposed  him.  The  question 
assumed  different  phases,  and  in  January,  1860,  it  was  made  one 
of  the  prizes  of  the  Academy.  Pasteur,  at  this  point,  took  up 
the  matter  and  made  the  researches  to  which  allusion  has  already 
been  made.  His  first  step  was  to  ascertain  whether  in  reality 
there  are  floating  in  the  atmosphere  spores  of  the  microscopic 
fungi  or  germs  of  the  infusoria,  for  by  this  time  the  question  was 
confined  almost  exclusively  to  one  point,  viz :  the  atmosphere  as 
the  supposed  source  of  the  organic  germs.  For  this  purpose  he 
passed  air  through  a  wad  of  gun  cotton  packed  in  a  glass  tube. 
Then  dissolving  the  cotton  in  ether  and  alcohol  he  was  enabled 
to  gather  in  the  deposit  whatever  floating  particles  had  been 
caught  upon  the  cotton  during  the  forced  passage  of  the  air. 
Then  examining  these  deposits  with  the  microscope  he  found, 
besides  the  easily  recognizable  matters  such  as  starch-granules, 


164  -Appendix. 

hairs,  coal-dust,  etc.,  which  are  known  to  be  floating  in  the  at- 
mosphere, numerous  round  or  oval  organized  corpuscles,  some  of 
which  "closely  resemble  the  spores  of  the  commonest  moulds." 
and  others  "resemble  the  globular  infusoria  and  are  regarded  as 
being  the  eggs  of  these  small  beings."  "  But,  as  to  affirming," 
he  says  "  that  this  particular  one  is  a  spore,  or  still  more  that  it 
is  a  spore  of  a  definite  species,  or  that  that  corpuscle  is  the  egg  of 
an  infusoria  or  of  such  a  species,  I  do  not  believe  that  this  is  pos- 
sible. I  am  content,  as  far  as  I  am  concerned,  to  affirm  that 
these  corpuscles  are  evidently  organized."  In  the  light  of  Le- 
maire's  subsequent  observations,  which  will  soon  be  alluded  to, 
it  is  demonstrated  that  this  opinion  of  Pasteur's  was  correct. 

Now  assuming  that  such  germs  are  floating  in  the  atmos- 
phere, Pasteur  asserted  that  their  number  and  variety  would  differ 
greatly  in  given  volumes  of  air  collected  from  different  locali- 
ties, and  he  even  said  in  definite  terms  "that  everywhere  it  was 
possible  to  detach  a  volume  of  air  from  the  atmosphere  which 
will  contain  neither  egg  nor  spore,  and  will  not  produce  gener- 
ation in  putrescible  solutions."  To  determine  this  point  he  pre- 
pared a  large  number  of  flasks  partly  filled  with  solutions  of  su- 
gar and  yeast.  After  thorough  boiling  the  flasks  were  hermeti- 
cally sealed  by  drawing  out  the  necks  to  a  fine  point.  The  flasks 
were  then  taken  to  different  localities  and  opened  by  pinching  off 
the  necks.  Air  would  rush  in  by  reason  of  the  partial  vacuum 
which  had  been  formed  by  the  boiling  of  the  contained  fluid,  and 
thus  air  from  any  locality  could  be  gathered  for  experiment.  In 
this  way  air  was  taken  from  the  tops  of  high  mountains,  in  the 
very  midst  of  glaciers,  from  level,  open  plains  in  the  country, 
from  the  streets  of  crowded  cities,  from  cellars,  etc.  The  result 
was  that  just  in  proportion  to  the  distance  from  crowded  cities, 
and  the  absence  of  disturbing  currents  in  the  atmosphere,  the 
evidences  of  organic  life  diminished.  Of  twenty  flasks  which  were 
opened  on  the  "  Mer  de  Glace"  in  the  Alps,  at  an  altitude  of 
6,000  feet,  one  only  subsequently  contained  any  trace  of  life.  In 
another  series  of  experiments  flasks  were  filled  in  the  cellars  of 
the  Observatory  in  Paris,  where  the  temperature  is  almost  uni- 


Appendix.  165 

form  and  the  air  is  very  still.  The  number  containing  organisms 
was  very  much  less  than  in  those  filled  in  the  garden  of  the  same 
building.  Pasteur  predicted  that  if  flasks  could  be  opened  and 
closed  in  deep  cellars  with  absolutely  no  disturbance  caused  by 
the  entrance  of  the  operator  there  would  be  the  same  absence  of 
vitality  as  in  flasks  which  had  been  long  exposed  to  red  heat.* 
Later  on  he  learned,  what  he  had  also  predicted,  that  by  simply 
turning  the  long  neck  of  his  flasksf  downward  they  might  be  kept 
indefinitely  without  sealing  or  stoppers  of  cotton,  and  still  no 
organisms  would  show  themselves,  for  by  this  simple  expedient 
the  germs  could  not  enter  the  flasks,  gravity  opposing. 

On  the  other  hand,  Pouchet,  assisted  by  MM.  Joly  and 
Musset,  shortly  afterward  went  over  the  same  ground.  He  col- 
lected the  solid  particles  from  the  air  by  means  of  an  instru- 
ment which  he  called  an  aeroscope.  This  was  a  simple  tube 
drawn  out  to  a  point.  Air  was  passed  in  a  jet  through  this  and 
made  to  impinge  upon  a  glass  plate  covered  with  some  viscous 
substance.  A  pile  of  dust  was  thus  caught,  and  then  submitted 
to  examination  by  the  microscope.  But  strangely  enough  although 
he  found  plenty  of  foreign  materials,  like  coal-dust,  starch-gran- 
ules, etc.,  not  a  trace  of  organic  life,  either  in  shape  of  spores  or 
of  germs.  He  was  untiring  in  his  researches.  "He  has,"  says 
M.  Joly,  "  examined  the  dust  which  finds  its  way  into  the  respir- 
atory cavities  in  man  and  the  lower  animals;  that  which  has 
been  the  accumulation  of  centuries  in  our  Gothic  cathedrals, 
and  that  which  floats  in  the  air  of  our  public  halls,  our  theatres, 
and  our  hospitals.  He  has  crossed  seas,  climbed  high  moun- 

*  In  an  unexpected  direction  Prof.  Tyndall  by  his  recent  experiments 
with  closed  boxes  has  practically  verified  this  prediction,  though  the  experi- 
ments were  not  made  with  cellar  air.  The  similarity  of  the  two  cases,  how- 
ever, is  apparent.  Vide  postca,  p.  175. 

t  Many  of  Pasteur's  flasks  are  still  preserved  in  Paris,  and  by  repeated 
examination  have  been  found  to  remain  unchanged.  As  late  as  November, 
1874,  M.  Balard,  in  presenting  to  the  Academy  of  Sciences  a  paper  by  M.  Ser- 
vel,  detailing  experiments  which  the  writer  held  to  be  demonstrative  of  spon- 
taneous generation,  took  occasion  to  say  that  he  had  just  then  examined  in 
Pasteur's  laboratory  some  of  his  unsealed  flasks  which  contained  blood  that 
had  been  drawn  more  than  eleven  years  previously, and  in  which,  during  all 
this  time,  no  bacteria  had  appeared  and  no  putrefaction  had  taken  place. 


i66  Appendix. 

tains,  descended  into  the  crater  of  Vesuvius  and  of  Etna;  he 
has  penetrated  even  into  the  tombs  of  the  Pharaohs  and  studied 
their  crania  blackened  and  dusty  with  the  lapse  of  time."*  It 
seems  too  bad  after  all  this  that  he  should  not  have  been  re- 
warded by  occasionally  finding  germs,  but  his  results  were  bar- 
ren. Then  he  prepared  a  series  of  flasks  with  putrescible  infus- 
ions as  Pasteur  had  done  and  with  the  same  end  in  view,  of 
gathering  air  from  different  localities  and  learning  whether  sub- 
sequently organisms  would  develope  in  them.  Now,  holding  as 
he  did  to  the  theory  of  spontaneous  generation,  he  said,  as  the 
chemical  constitution  of  the  air  is  the  same  everywhere,  we  ought 
always  to  find  such  organisms  wherever  air,  no  matter  from  what 
part  of  the  globe  it  may  be  taken,  is  brought  into  contact  with 
putrescible  solutions..  And  sure  enough  his  flasks  were  found 
always  to  contain  them. 

Here  then  was  a  flat  contradiction  in  the  results  obtained  in 
each  series  of  experiments  by  these  two  eminent  observers.  Each 
showed,  at  least  to  his  own  satisfaction,  the  fallacies  in  the  ex- 
'periments  of  the  other,  but  the  possibility  of  reconciliation 
seemed  almost  hopeless.  It  was  therefore  proposed  to  submit  the 
case  to  a  jury  of  experts  to  be  selected  by  the  Academy.  The 
contestants  availed  themselves  of  this  proposal,  and  a  commis- 
sion consisting  of  Flourens,  Dumas,  Brongiart,  Milne  Edwards 
and  Balard  was  appointed  in  January,  but  did  not  begin  its 
labors  until  June,  1864.  Each  contestant  stated  his  propositions 
in  definite  and  unmistakeable  terms,  and  M.  Joly,  in  his  confi- 
dence, even  went  to  the  extent  of  saying,  "If  a  single  one  of 
our  flasks  remains  unchanged,  we  will  acknowledge  defeat."  Pas- 
teur appeared  with  sixty  flasks  and  made  his  experiments. 
Pouchet  and  his  confreres  then  declared  that  they  were  unwilling 
to  abide  by  a  decision  on  this  series  of  experiments,  and  as  the 
commission  persisted  in  holding  both  sides  to  this  series  which 

*  Les  Generations  spontanees :  Par  JUL.ES  JAMIN,  Revue  tics  deux  Monties,  Vol 
LJV.,  p.  431.  Though  somewhat  argumentative,  this  article  is  a  good'resume 
of  the  controversy  before  the  French  Academy,  and  the  results  on  both  sides 
are  clearly  set  forth.  A  translation  of  the  article  was  published  in  the 
Methodist  Quarterly  Review  of  Oct.,  1WK. 


Appendix.  167 

had  been  the  principal  cause  of  the  controversy,  Pouchet  with- 
drew from  the  contest.*  The  Commission,  however,  continued 
its  investigations,  and  in  February  of  the  next  year  they  reported 
that  the  facts  which  were  observed  by  M.  Pasteur. and  contested 
by  MM.  Pouchet,  July  and  Musset  were  of  the  most  perfect  ex- 
actitude.** 

One  point  only  needs  now  to  be  settled  in  order  to  complete 
the  chain  of  evidence  and  render  demonstration  complete.  For- 
tunately this  was  done  before  the  rendition  of  the  report.  That 
is  to  collect  and  identify  the  germs  from  the  atmosphere,  and 
to  propagate  them,  for  it  will  be  remembered  that  with  a  com- 
mendable prudence  Pasteur  had  only  stated  his  opinions  as  to 
the  corpuscles  and  spores,  which  he  had  gathered  in  the  manner 
already  described.  The  heterogenists  with  force  and  with  reason 
said,  if  such  organic  bodies  are  floating  in  the  atmosphere,  it  is 
only  fair  that  our  opponents  should  show  them  to  us.  This  was 
accomplished  by  Dr.  Lemaire  and  Prof.  Gratiolet  in  1864.  They 
condensed  the  moisture  of  the  atmosphere  in  a  wide  open  vessel, 

*  "It  is,  perhaps,  unfortunate,"  says  Jules  Jamin,  "that  the  Commission 
held  so  stringently  to  the  programme  as  to  let  slip  the  unique  opportunity  01 
a  solution  which  was  expected  from  it.  But  it  is  evidently  clear  that  the 
heterogenists,  however  they  may  have  colored  their  retreat,  were  self-con- 
demned. If  they  had  been  sure  of  the  fact,  which  they  had  solemnly  under- 
taken to  prove  under  penalty  of  acknowledgment  of  defeat,  they  would  have 
persisted  in  proving  it,  for  it  would  have  been  the  triumph  of  their  doctrine. 
It  is  doubtful  causes  only  that  are  allowed  to  go  by  default."—  Revue  des  deux 
Mondes,  Vol.  LIV,  p.  m 

**  En  resume,  les  faits  observers  par  M.  Pasteur  et  contestes  par  MM. 
Pouchet,  Joly  et  Musset,  sont  de  la  plus  parfaite  exactitude.  Des  liquers  fer- 
mentescibles  peuvent  rester,  soit  au  contact  de  1'air  confine,  soit  au  contact 
de  1'air  sou  vent  renouvele,  sans  s'alterer,  et'quand  sous  1'influence  de  ce 
fluide  il  s'y  de"  veloppe  des  organismes  vivants,  ce  n'est  pas  a  ses  elements 
gaseux  quil  faut  attribuer  ce  developpment  mais  a  des  particules  solides  dont 
on  peut  depouiller  par  les  moyens  divers,  ainsi  que  M.  Pasteur  1'avait  affirme. 
Oomptes  Rendus,  vol.  Ix,  p.  396. 

Running  through  the  Compt.es  Rsndm  from  the  year  1858  to  186o,  the  reader 
will  find  all  the  facts  and  reports  upon  this  remarkable  controversy,  which, 
as  Dr.  Dal  ton  remarks,  may  almost  be  said  to  have  kept  the  Academy  in  a 
turmoil  for  some  six  or  seven  years,  and  which  at  times  was  so  conducted  as 
to  provoke  considerable  bad  feeling. 

A  good  sketch  also  of  Pasteur's  experiments  may  be  found  in  Schfitzen- 
berger  on  Fermentations,  Vol.  xx,  of  the  International  Scientific  Series, 
published  by  D.  Appleton  &  Co.,  New  York. 


i68  Appendix. 

which  was  surrounded  by  ice.  Water  was  thus  obtained  from 
different  localities.  It  was  carefully  enclosed  in  glass  tubes  and 
submitted  to  examination.  The  liquid  thus  condensed  was  at 
first,  colorless,  clear,  and  contained  no  living  being.  There 
were,  however,  "myriads  of  spherical  roundish  and  fusiform 
spores,  pale  cells  and  semi  transparent  ovoid  bodies,"  besides,  of 
course,  the  foreign  matters.  At  the  end  of  fifteen  hours  large 
numbers  of  living  bacteria  were  found  ;  in  forty-eight  hours  vi- 
brios and  spirilla  swarmed  in  abundance,  and  in  three  days 
monads,  whose  incubation  is  slower,  were  also  present.  Just  in 
proportion  as  this  mass  of  life  appeared,  the  spores  and  semi-trans- 
parent corpuscles  disappeared"  These  experiments,  varied  in 
many  ways,  even  to  the  extent  of  sowing  as  seed  the  particles  ob- 
tained from  the  air,  and  thus  propagating  infusorial  life,  were 
demonstrative  of  the  actual  existence  of  organic  germs  in  the 
atmosphere.  In  this  way 'the  work  of  the  Commission  was  ma- 
terially aided,  and  the  decision  which  they  rendered  was  generally 
accepted  as  conclusive  against  spontaneous  generation. 

The  heterogenists,  however,  even  to-day  do  not  accept  these 
conclusions,  and,  although  they  grant  that  the  usual  mode  of  the 
development  of  infusorial  life  is  from  pre-existing  germs,  they 
claim  that,  under  exceptional  conditions,  it  may  arise  sponta- 
neously. Foremost  among  these  advocates,  and  conspicuous  for 
his  attainments,  is  Dr.  H.  Charlton  Bastian,  of  London.  His 
labors  in  this  direction  and  his  publications,  both  fugitive  and 
systematic,1  are  familiar  to  you  all.  I  shall,  therefore,  for  lack 
of  time  attempt  no  description,  not  even  a  summary  of  his  ex- 
periments, but  this  sketch  would  be  incomplete  without  a  refer- 
ence to  them.  I  would  in  no  way  underestimate  their  importance 
as  contributions  to  our  knowledge  on  the  subject,  but  after  exam- 
ination of  all  the  evidence  which  has  been  accessible  to  me,  I 
am  unable  to  see  that  his  work  has  advanced  the  main  question 


1  The  Modes  of  the  Origin  of  Lowest  Organisms,  including  a  discussion  of  the 
Experiments  of  M.  Pasteur,  and  a  Replyto  some  Statements  by  Profs.  Huxley  and 
Tyndall.  London,  1871. 

The  Beginnings  of  Life:  being  some  Account  of  the  Nature,  Modes  of  Origin 
and  Transformations  of  Lower  Organisms.  2  Vols.,  London,  1872. 


Appendix.  16  g 

materially  beyond  the  point  where  the  French  Academy  left  it. 
In  some  minor  particulars,  his  work  has  been  of  great  service. 
His  experiments  have  been  analysed  very  carefully,  and  in  many 
cases  repeated  by  Frankland,1  Burdon  Sanderson,2  Sedgwick, 
Lionel  Beale,  Roberts,3  Lankester,4  Tyndall,5  Huxley6  and  others, 
and  numerous  sources  of  error  of  pointed  out.  Some  of  these  au- 
thorities are  believers  in  the  possibility  of  spontaneous  generation 
and  later,  on  p.  170,  I  have  quoted  opinions  from  them,  but  no 
one  of  them,  so  far  as  I  am  aware,  admits  that  Dr.  Bastian's  ex- 
periments are  conclusive,  or  that  spontaneous  generation  has  ever 
yet  been  demonstrated.  Some  of  them,  too,  have  been  very 
wrongly  quoted  by  Dr.  B.  and  other  heterogenists  as  supporting 
their  views.  On  the  other  hand  there  are  still  some  who  openly 
avow  their  belief  in  the  doctrine,  and  I  may  mention  here  a  few 
names  that  occur  to  me  at  this  writing  of  men  eminent  for  their 
scientific  attainments — Mr.  Wallace,7  Prof.  Huizinger,8  of  the 
University  of  Groningen,  Prof.  Cantoni  and  others,  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Pavia,  and  Ernst.  Haeckel.9  The  latter,  however,  is  a 


(1)  Nature,  Vol.  Ill,  p.  225. 

(2)  Ibidem,  Vol.  IV,  p.  377,  and  Vol.  VIII,  pp.  141, 181. 

(3)  Mr.  Roberts  was  forced,  by  his  own  experiments,  apparently  very  un- 
willingly, to  believe  in  the  possibility  of  spontaneous  generation.    Prof.  Tyn- 
dall, in  his  recent  paper  before  the  Royal  Society,  (p.  174),  has  pointed  out  a 
minute  error  of  detail  which  vitiated  the  results  and  led  Mr.  Roberts  to  his 
conclusions.    For  his  experiments  see  Philosphical  Transactions  Vol.  CLXIV., 
1874. 

(4)  Nature,  January  30,  1873,  page  242,  and  Oct.  16, 1873,  p.  505. 
Lankester  and  Podes  original  experiments  are  reported  in  detail  in  Pro- 
ceedings Royal  Soc.,  Vol.  XXI.,  1873. 

(5)  Medical  Times  and  Gazette,  Oct.,  1870,  page  406,  and  The  Lancet,  February 
12, 1876,  p.  262. 

(6)  Nature,  Vol.  II.,  p.  473. 

(7)  An  elaborate  review  of  Dr.  Bastian's  larger  work  was  published  by 
Mr.  Wallace,  in  Nature,  Aug.  8  and  15, 1872. 

(8)  Pfluger's  Archiv,  Vol.  VII.,  p.  549.    An  advance  summary  by  himself  of 
the  experiments  detailed  in  this  paper  may  be  found  in  Nature,  March  20, 
1873,  p.  380.  See  also  comments  on  the  same  by  J.  Burdon  Sanderson.   Ibidem, 
Oct.  2, 1873,  p.  478,  and  Med.  Times  and  Gazette,  Sept.  27, 1873,  p.  364.   Sanderson 
interprets  these  experiments  differently  from  Dr.  Bastian  and  Huizinger 
himself. 

(9)  Prof.  E.  Ray  Lankester  has  published  a  lengthy  abstract  of  Haeckel's 
opinions  in  Nature,  March  2, 1871,  p.  355. 


ijo  Appendix. 

supporter  of  this  side  of  the  case  from  purely  theoretical  consid- 
erations, for,  although  he  concedes  that,  thus  far  there  is  no  ab- 
solute proof  of  the  theory,  he  holds  that  the  difficulties  in  the 
way  of  ultimately  establishing  it  are  not  only  surmountable  but 
less  formidable  than  those  that  face  the  supporters  of  Biogenesis. 

I  may  sum  up  then,  without  further  detail,,  the  whole  matter, 
by  saying  that  there  is  no  trustworthy  evidence  to-day  that  spon- 
taneous generation  has  been  demonstrated  in  a  single  instance. 
Even  Huxley,  who  declares  that  if  it  were  given  him  '•  to  look 
beyond  the  abyss  of  geologically  recorded  time  to  the  still  more  re- 
mote period  when  the  earth  was  passing  through  physical  and 
chemical  conditions  which  it  can  no  more  see  again  than  a  man 
can  recall  his  infancy,  he  should  expect  to  be  a  witness  of  the 
evolution  of  living  protaplasm  from  not  living  matter"  says  very 
significantly  that,  with  this  limitation,  Redi's  great  doctrine  of 
biogenesis  seems  to  him  victorious  along  the  whole  line  at  the 
present  day.  Authority*,  however,  cannot  settle  the  question, 


*  Notwithstanding  this  admission,  I  venture  to  add  here  a  few  opinions 
which  I  have  noted,  without  special  search,  in  the  course  of  my  reading. 
Even  if  not  decisive  of  the  question  at  issue,  such  opinions  are  interesting. 

SIB  WM.  THOMPSON:  "I  am  ready  to  adopt  as  an  article  of  scientific  faith, 
true  through  all  space  and  through  all  time,  that  life  proceeds  from  life  and 
from  nothing  else."  President's  Address,  British  Association,  1874.  Nature, 
Vol.  IV,  p.  269. 

HAECKEL,  :  "Positive  contradiction  of  the  hypothesis  of  Archigeiiesis  is 
impossible.  Positive  proof  there  is  not  yet  since  no  one  has  yet  seen  any  or- 
ganism take  origin  except  by  parentage.  *  *  *  Either  the  monera  were 
once  for  all  at  the  beginning  of  organic  life  on  the  earth  produced  by  Archi- 
genesis,  *  *  *  or  in  the  course  of  the  earth's  history  they  have  been  pro- 
duced by  recurring  acts  of  Archigeiiesis,  and  in  this  case  there  is  no  reason 
why  this  process  should  not  occur  at  the  present  time."  Nature,  March  2, 
1871,  p. ;{."/). 

J.  BURDON  SANDERSON:  "I  do  not  hold  that  spontaneous  generation  is 
impossible.  I  do  not  regard  heterogenists  as  scientific  heretics.  All  I  say  is, 
that  up  to  the  present  moment  I  am  not  aware  of  any  proof  that  they  are 
right."  Nature,  Oct.  2,  1873,  p.  479. 

M.  FLOUBENS:  "So  long  as  my  opinion  was  not  formed,  I  had  nothing  to 
say.  Now  that  it  is  formed  I  will  express  it.  Pasteur's  experiments  arc  deci- 
sive. If  spontaneous  generation  is  a  reality  what  is  necessary  to  produce  ani- 
malcules? Air  and  putrescible  fluids.  Now  M.  Pasteur  puts  air  and  putres- 
cible  liquids  together  and  nothing  comes  of  it.  There  is  then  no  spontaneous 


Appendix.  171 

and  in  entering  this  Scotch  verdict  of not  proven,  I  simply  accept 
what  I  believe  to  be  the  correct  interpretation  of  the  best  attain- 
able evidence  in  the  present  state  of  our  science.  If  new  evi- 
dence can  be  adduced  which  is  subversive  of  this  conclusion,  we 
must  accept  it  without  regard  to  our  predilections  or  beliefs.  To 
reject  the  theory  on  such  considerations  is  contrary  to  the  scien- 
tific method,  and  it  is  by  this  method  alone  that  experimental 
evidence  should  be  interpreted. 

generation.  To  doubt  longer  is  not  to  comprehend  the  question."— Revue  des 
deux  Mondes,  Vol.  LIV,  1864,  p.  441. 

PASTEUR;  "This  conclusion  which  I  have  already  formulated  is  unassail- 
able. In  the  present  state  of  science  the  hypothesis  of  spontaneous  generation  is  a 
chimera."  Translated  from  a  letter  to  Prof.  Tyndall,  dated  Paris,  February  8, 
1876.  The  Lancet,  Feb.  19, 1876,  p.  296. 

HUXLEY  ;  "  If  in  the  present  state  of  science,  the  alternative  is  offered  us. 
either  germs  can  stand  a  greater  heat  than  has  been  supposed,  or  the  mole- 
cules of  dead  matter,  for  no  valid  or  intelligible  reason  that  is  assigned,  are 
able  to  rearrange  themselves  into  living  bodies,  exactly  such  as  can  be  de- 
monstrated to  be  frequently  produced  in  another  way,  I  cannot  understand 
how  choice  can  be,  even  fora  moment  doubtful.  But  though  I  cannot  express 
this  conviction  of  mine  too  strongly,  I  must  carefully  guard  myself  against 
the  supposition  that  I  intend  to  suggest  that  no  such  thing  as  Abiogenesis 
ever  has  taken  place  in  the  past  or  ever  will  take  place  in  the  future.  *  *  * 
All  I  feel  justified  in  affirming  is  that  I  see  no  reason  for  believing  that  the 
feat  has  been  performed  yet.'.' — President's  Address,  British  Association,  1870. 
Nature,  Sept.  15,  1870,  p.  403. 

BASTIAN  :  "  On  account  of  this  a  priori  probability  and  in  the  face  of  this 
evidence,  I  am,  therefore,  content,  and,  as  I  think,  justified  in  believing  that 
Living  things  may  and  do  arise  de  noro."  Dr.  B's.  views  have  been  often  sum- 
marized in  his  prolific  writings,  but  I  know  of  no  more  concise  expression 
of  them  than  the  above,  from  a  closing  paragraph  of  a  series  of  papers  "on  the 
Heterogeneous  Evolution  of  Living  Things." — Mature,  July  14, 1870,  p.  228. 

LIONEL,  S.  BEALE :  "I  confess  to  being  an  opponent  of  the  doctrine,  but 
simply  because  I  cannot  admit  that  the  evidence  yet  adduced  is  at  all  con- 
vincing. *  *  *  The  fact  of  a  priori  arguments  having  been  so  very  much 
dwelt  upon,  makes  me  think  that  the  mind  of  the  experimenter  may  have 
been  to  some  extent  prejudiced  (prepossessed)  in  favor  of  the  doctrine  he  seeks 
to  support  by  new  facts,  and  in  this  way  they  are  calculated  to  excite  in  my 
mind,  however  much  I  may  resist,  a  doubt  whether  the  inferences  which 
have  been  arrived  at  really  have  been  deduced  from  facts  of  observation  and 
experiment  o«7.r."—  Nature,  July  28, 1870,  p.  2oi. 

SMITH,  WOBTHINGTON  G,:  "  It  seems  to  me  rational  enough  to  suppose 
that  unicellular  bodies  and  objects  of  the  lowest  possible  organization  may 
be  heterogeneously  produced  from  the  inorganic  world."— Nature,  August  4, 
1870,  p.  276. 

VALENTIN:  Prof.  Physiology,  Univ.  Bern.  -'On  the  whole,  the  hypothesis 
of  a  spontaneous  generation  of  plants  or  animals  can  only  be  regarded  as  a 


172  -Appendix. 

An  important,  if  indeed  it  be  not  the  pivotal  point  in  the 
recent  discussions  of  this  question,  is  the  degree  of  heat  to  which 
vegetable  and  animal  germs  can  be  submitted  without  destroying 
their  vitality.  On  this  point  there  is  great  discrepancy  of  opin- 
ion. To  admit  that  212°  F.  is  insufficient,  is  to  destroy  absolute- 
ly, as  Pouchet  pointed  out,  the  validity  of  Spallanzini's  and  Schul- 
tze's  experiments.  I  allude  to  this,  not  for  argument's  sake,  which 
is  foreign  to  a  historical  review  of  the  question,  but  merely  to 
enable  me  to  state  several  interesting  facts.  Prof.  Jeffries  Wyman*, 
of  Harvard  College,  found  infusoria  in  infusions  that  had  been 
boiled  four  hours,  but  he  found  none  after  five  or  six  hours  boiling. 


kind  of  superstition  which  is  constantly  receding  before  the  advance  of  the 
natural  sciences.''— Text-Book  of  Physiology.    London,  1853,  p.  624. 

POUCHET,  in  his  Heterogenie,  previously  alluded  to,  (p.  162)  deliberately 
quotes  Valentin  as  a  supporter  of  his  (Pouchet's)  views,  whereas  he  is  an  un- 
compromising opponent  of  them. 

VAN  BENEDEN:  "  It  is  evident  to  all  those  who  place  facts  above  hypothe- 
ses and  prejudices,  that  spontaneous  generation,  *  *  *  does  not  exist,  at 
least  if  we  only  consider  the  present  epoch."— Animal  Paras Ites  and  Messmates, 
p.  106. 

CAKPENTEB,  W,  B.:  "The  doctrine  of 'spontaneous  generation'  cannot 
now  be  said  to  have  any  claim  whatever  to  be  received  as  even  a  possible  hy- 
pothesis."— Principles  of  Physiology,  Genl.  and  Oomp.,  3d  edition,  Philadelphia, 
1851,  p,  866. 

HUIZINGER:  •'  Under  the  above  described  circumstances  [i.  e.  his  experi- 
ments] Bacteria  can  arise  without  pre-existing  germs.  Not  in  any  single 
case  have  I  seen  any  other  organisms  than  Bacteria— never  fungi."— X<tt  «>•<', 
March  30, 1873,  p.  381. 

JAMES  SAMUELSON:  "If  the  believers  in  spontaneous  generation  still  in- 
sist that  their  hypothesis  has  not  been  refuted  and  that,  assuming  rny  obser- 
vations to  be  correct,  their  view  of  the  case  has  not  been  fully  disproved,  1 
am  not  prepared  to  deny  this.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  I  must  be  permitted 
to  retort  that  their  experiments  have  only  proved,  so  far,  their  inability,  not- 
withstanding all  their  precautions,  to  exclude  invisible  germs  from  their  in- 
fusions.''—.^^. Times  and  Gazette,  Sept.  24, 1870,  p.  376. 

TYNDAI.L  :  "  As  far  as  inquiry  has  hitherto  penetrated,  life  has  never  been 
proved  to  appear  independently  of  antecedent  life."— Nature,  February  3, 
1876,  page  269. 

*  PROF.  WYMAN'S  experiments  are  justly  deemed  among  the  most  valu- 
able contributions  ever  made  to  this  subject.  They  are  recorded  in  the 
Amer.  Jour,  of  Sci.  and  Arts,  Vol.  XXXIV,  1862,  p.  79,  and  Vol.  XLIV,  1867, 
p.  152. 


Appendix. 

Professor  Cantoni,*  of  the  University  of  Pavia,  by  means  of  a 
Papin's  digester,  carried  the  temperature  of  his  flasks  to  uo°- 
117°  Centigrade,  and  yet  vibrios  in  large  number,  were  produced 
in  two  days.  And  Dr.  Bastian  has  repeatedly  noted  a  tempera- 
ture ranging  from  148°  to  150°  C.  (equal  to  312  F.)  to  which 
his  infusions  have  been  submitted  for  a  brief  period,  and  yet  liv- 
ing matter  has  soon  developed.  On  the  other  hand,  some  of  the 
living  infusoria  will  flourish  in  temperatures  below  the  freezing 
point.  They  may  even  be  dried  and  kept  for  years  and  then  by 
the  application  of  moisture  they  will  revive  and  resume  active 
motion.  The  truth  seems  to  be  that  the  germs, 'at  least,  are  of 
well  nigh  inextinguishable**  vitality,  but  it  is  difficult,  if  not  im- 
possible, to  secure  consent  as  to  the  precise  limits  of  temperature, 
wet  and  dry,  and  other  conditions  under  which  such  vitality  may 
be  retained.  Until  these  points  can  be  determined  it  seems  al- 
most hopeless  to  expect  a  solution  which  will  command  assent 
from  both  parties  to  the  controversy. 

*  Gaz.  Med.  Ital.  Lombard.,  Ser.  VI.,  Vol.  1,  1868.  It  is  a  significant  fact  in 
this  connection  that  Cantoiii's,Wyman's,Huizinger's,and  others'  experiments 
have  been  interpreted  by  the  adherents  of  opposite  sides  of  the  question  as 
substantiating  their  own  view  of  the  matter. 

**  "  The  tenacity  of  life  [of  the  Rotiferse]  is  one  of  the  most  extraordinary 
phenomena.  Their  resistance  to  cold  is  something  marvellous,  and  we  don't 
even  know  where  it  stops ;  the  lowest  temperature  that  we  can  obtain  in  our 
laboratories  does  not  seem  to  have  any  effect  upon  them  *  *  *  I  have 
sometimes  removed  them  quickly  from  the  freezing  apparatus  and  thrown 
them  into  a  stove  heated  to  176°  Fahr.  *  *  *  In  this  two-fold  test  and  for- 
midable transition  from  cold  to  heat,  these  microzoa  passed  rapidly  through 
a  change  of  216°  Fahr.  without  being  in  the  least  inconvenienced  by  it." 
Pouchet.  Tlie  Universe,  p.  56.  2d  Ed.,  1871. 

RUDOLPHI  long  ago  learned  that  the  entozoa  in  frozen  fish  when  thawed 
out  resumed  their  customary 'activity.  FRANKLAND  has  recently  described 
ice-fleas,  which  flourish  in  the  glaciers  of  the  Alps,  at  a  temperature  con- 
stantly below  freezing  point. 

MR.  BAUER  kept  the  vibrio  tritict—B,  parasite  of  wheat— dried  for  seven 
years,  and  on  moistening  them  with  water  they  resumed  their  active  mo- 
tions. . 

M.  BALBIANI  in  1857  "observed  a  drop  of  water  on  a  plate  of  glass  in 
which  were  living  colpods.  When  the  water  was  evaporated  each  became 
encysted  and-  dormant  in  its  envelope.  The  plate  was  moistened  again  in 
1864,  when  every  colpod  was  observed  to  come  out  from  its  shell  and  prompt- 
ly resume  its  vital  functions,  which  had  been  interrupted  by  seven  years  of 
sleep."— Revue  des  deux  Mondcs,  Vol.  LIV.,  1864,  p.  439. 


ij4  ^Appendix. 

Though  not  pertinent,  strictly  speaking,  to  a  historical 
sketch  like  this  of  the  doctrine  of  spontaneous  generation,  it  is 
interesting  to  know  what  are  the  organisms  whose  germs  can 
withstand  such  savage  treatment  as  that  described,  and  whose 
mode  of  generation  is  involved  in  any  obscurity.  They  are  only 
the  very  lowest  orders  of  life  known,  and  by  common  consent 
the  question  is  limited  to  the  Monas,  Vibrio.  Spirilla  and  Bacti- 
rium.  The  last  three  are  generally  conceded  to  belong  to  the 
vegetable  world.  At  all  events,  they  stand  upon  the  extremes! 
limits  of  that  debatable  ground  in  which  spontaneous  generation, 
if  it  is  ever  shown  to  be  a  reality,  must  be  found.  The  higher 
orders,  comprising  almost  the  entire  class  of  infusoria,  are  now 
known  to  reproduce  themselves  by  true  sexual  generation.* 

The  last,  but  by  no  means  most  unimportant  contribution 
to  this  subject  is  by  Prof.  Tyndall ;  and  I  cannot  close  this 
sketch  without  alluding  to  his  work,  although  it  was  not  under- 
taken for  the  purpose  of  solving  or  attempting  to  solve  the  prob- 
lem of  spontaneous  generation.  His  investigationsf  were  a  con- 
tinuation, practically,  of  his  former  experiments  on  floating  par- 
ticles in  the  air  (to  which  allusion  has  already  been  made,  p.  162), 
and  were  for  the  purpose  of  supplying  direct  evidence  to  connect 

*  The  observations  of  Stein,  Englemann,  Balbiani  and  others  have  clearly 
established  this  fact  for  a  large  share  of  the  infusoria.  Their  labors  have  been 
supplemented  and  their  results  corroborated  by  the  elaborate  studies  of  Ernst 
Eberhard.  An  abstract  of  his  work  may  be  found  in  Quar.  Jour.  Micros.  Kci. 
New  Series,  Vol,  VIII,  p.  155.  See  DALTON,  loc.  cit.  for  reference  to  Stein  and 
others. 

f  Medical  Times  and  Gazette,  January  29, 1876.  Also  the  Lancet,  same  date. 
The  title  of  his  paper  is  "On  the  Optical  Deportment  of  the  Atmosphere  in 
Reference  to  the  Phenomena  of  Putrefaction  and  Infection."  An  abstract  by 
the  author  himself  was  published  in  Nature,  February  3,  187<>. 

Since  this  lecture  was  given  Dr.  Bastian  has  sharply  criticised  both  Tyn- 
dall's  experiments  and  his  deductions.  In  turn  Prof.  Tyndall  has  made  a  re- 
joinder of  equal  positiveness  and  severity.  Dr.  B.  entitles  Tyndall's  paper 
"a  new  attempt  to  establish  the  truth  of  the  germ  theory,"  and  then  un- 
sparingly attacks  not  the  germ  theory  of  disease  but  the  doctrine  of  bio- 
genesis—questions which  are  far  from  being  identical.  A  most  dispassionate 
review  of  Dr.  Bastian's  position  in  this  controversy  may  be.  found  in  the 
Popular  Science  Review,  1876,  in  a  paper  by  Rev.  W.  H.  Dallinger,  V.P.R.M.S. 
This  paper  contains  also  some  valuable  discoveries  made  by  the  author 
and  Dr.  Drysdale. 


.Appendix. 

zymotic  changes  (putrefaction)  with  the  presence  of  such  parti- 
cles. The  experiments  show  that  there  are  particles  of  matter 
in  the  air  which  are  ultra-microscopic  in  size,  and  yet  their 
presence  can  be  made  evident  by  their  power  of  refracting  light, 
and  secondly,  whenever  air  depiived  of  such  particles  is  brought 
in  contact  with  putrescible  solutions  no  putrefaction  occurs,  but 
that  it  invariably  occurs  wherever  the  air  does  contain  such  par- 
ticles. An  air  tight  box  with  a  glass  side  and  windows  in  the 
ends  had  sealed  to  its  bottom  twelve  test  tubes  with  their  mouths 
upward  and  projecting  inside  the  box.  In  the  top  was  an  India 
rubber  stuffing  box  through  which  passed  a  glass  tube  by  means 
of  which  infusions  could  be  dropped  into  the  test  tubes.  The 
whole  interior  was  smeared  with  glycerine  and  the  apparatus 
allowed  to  stand  a  number  of  days.  By  subsidence,  then,  all 
foreign  matter  was  caught  and  retained  on  the  bottom.  Now 
when  the  electric  beam  is  passed  through  the  box,  the  space 
inside  appears  perfectly  dark,  and  the  freedom  from  dust  is  thus 
proven,  for,  so  long  as  there  are  floating  particles,  the  -track  of 
the  beam  can  be  detected.  Then  organic  solutions  of  different 
sorts  were  dropped  into  the  tubes  and  boiled  from  below  (the 
tubes  being  made  to  project  from  the  bottom  of  the  box,  for  this 
purpose;  for  a  space  only  of  five  minutes.  In  no  single  instance, 
except  where  the  cause  of  the  failure  was  obvious,  did  any  turbid- 
ity occur  in  the  solution,  nor  was  organic  life  (bacteria)  found 
after  even  a  lapse  of  weeks  and  of  months.  The  conclusion  thus 
reached  by  Prof.  Tyndall  is  that  the  power  of  scattering  light 
and  of  developing  bacterial  life  by  the  atmosphere  go  hand  in 
hand,  and  both  are  dependent  upon  the  presence  of  particles 
which,  even  by  the  highest  powers  of  the  microscepe,  we  cannot 
detect.  As  bacterial  life  is  regarded  as  necessary  to  putrefaction, 
incidentally,  therefore,  spontaneous  generation  is  held  to  be  neg- 
atived by  these  experiments.  This  deduction  will  be  accepted  or 
rejected  according  as  one  is  inclined  to  side  with  one  or  the  other 
parties  to  the  controversy.  I  cannot  refrain  from  expressing  my 
own  opinion,  that  not  only  are  the  experiments  of  the  utmost 
exactness,  but  also  that  already  they  have  led  to  results  which 
will  contribute  very  materially  to  the  ultimate  solution  of  this 
problem. 


ij6  .Appendix. 


M. 


EXPERIMENT   TO    SHOW   THAT    CHLOROPHYLL 

BODIES  MIGRATE  UNDER  THE  INFLUENCE 

OF  VARYING  INTENSITIES  OF  LIGHT. 


BY     V.     M.     SPALDING. 

If  we  make  a  thin  section  of  a  green  leaf  from  a  tree  or 
flowering  plant,  or,  better  still,  if  we  select  a  fresh,  delicate  leaf 
from  a  clump  of  growing  moss,  and  subject  it  to  examination 
with  the  microscope,  it  will  be  seen  that,  like  nearly  all  other 
plant  tissue,  the  leaf  is  made  up  of  distinct  cells.  To  consider  a 
special  case  at  once,  it  will  be  well  to  notice  the  structure  of  the 
leaf  employed  in  the  experiment,  which  belonged  to  a  common 
species  of  moss,  Munium  affine. 

The  leaf  is  very  small,  not  more  than  one- fifth  of  an  inch 
long  and  about  two-thirds  as  wide.  It  is  very  delicate,  almost 
transparent,  and  can  be  examined  under  the  microscope  without 
any  preparation  whatever.  Thus  examined,  its  structure  is  seen 
to  be  exceedingly  simple.  It  is  made  up  of  a  single  layer  of 
cells,  except  along  the  midrib,  where  it  is  two  or  three  layers 
thick.  No  vascular  bundles  are  found,  and  no  stomates.  We 
have,  therefore,  scarcely  more  to  examine  thon  a  single  layer  of 
cells  with  their  contents,  so  that  the  experiment  can  be  performed 
with  the  utmost  readiness  and  certainty. 

If  now  one  of  these  cells  is  examined,  it  will  be  found  to 
consist  of  a  delicate,  membranous  cell-wall,  containing  a  trans- 
parent, fluid-like  substance,  in  which  float  from  twelve  to  twenty 
round,  green  bodies.  These  latter  are  the  so-called  chlorophyll 
bodies. 


Appendix.  177 

We  have  nothing  to  do  just  now  with  the  question  how  these 
bodies  came  there  and  what  they  are  for,  though  it  suggests  a 
very  interesting  line  of  investigation.  The  position  of  the  chlo- 
rophyll bodies  in  the  cell,  and  their  movements  under  the  influ- 
ence of  varying  intensities  of  light,  are  all  that  will  here  be 
considered. 

If  the  plant  has  been  kept  on  a  short  allowance  of  light,  the 
chlorophyll  bodies  will  be  found  arranged  in  planes  parallel  to 
the  leaf  surface,  as  if  they  would  expose  themselves  as  fully  as 
possible  to  the  little  light  which  falls  upon  them  ;  but  if  the  plant 
has  been  in  bright  sunlight,  they  will  be  found  in  line  along  the 
side-walls  of  each  cell,  as  if  to  hide  themselves  in  a  measure  from 
the  intense  light.  And  further,  if  the  plant  which  has  been  in 
darkness  or  in  diffused  light,  and  in  whose  cells  the  chlorophyll 
bodies  are  arranged  in  the  former  position,  is  now  placed  in 
direct  sunlight,  it  will  take  but  a  short  time  for  them  to  assume 
the  latter  position,  and  vice  versa. 

rrhis  curious  fact  has  been  known  only  a  few  years,  but 
within  that  time  it  has  been  repeatedly  observed  by  the  best 
European  botanists,  and  is  now  as  well  established  as  any  other 
phenomenon  of  vegetable  life. 

With  a  view  to  confirming  this  fact  by  actual  observation,  a 
detailed  experiment  was  performed,  March  4th,  1876.  A  bunch 
of  moss  had  been  kept  in  a  room  for  several  days.  No  special 
pains  were  taken  with  it,  except  that  it  was  kept  moist  and  for 
two  days  had  been  turned  bottom  upwards  so  as  to  cut  off  the 
light  more  effectually.  It  was  in  good,  healthy  condition,  with 
soil  around  the  roots  which  had  been  taken  up  with  it  when  it 
was  brought  from  the  woods.  It  had  not,  then,  been  exposed  to 
direct  sunlight  for  several  days,  and  if  any  light  reached  it  at  all, 
it  must  have  been  very  faint. 

Just  before  noon,  six  fresh  leaves  were  examined,  from  differ- 
ent stems  of  the  bunch.  In  this  and  in  the  subsequent  examina- 
tions, pains  were  taken  to  select  delicate  young  leaves,  it  being 
supposed  that  they  would  be  most  susceptible  to  the  influence  to 
be  tested.  The  result  was  as  follows:  In  five  out  of  the  six 


ijS  Appendix. 

leaves,  the  chlorophyll  bodies  were  found  to  be  distributed,  in 
all  the  cells,  in  planes  parallel  to  the  surface  of  the  leaf.  In  the 
remaining  leaf,  this  was  true  except  in  the  cells  near  the  base, 
where  they  were  arranged  perpendicular  to  the  surface,  and  in  a 
line  around  the  side-walls. 

The  plant  was  then  again  moistened  with  fresh  water,  and 
hung  in  a  window  where  it  was  exposed  to  the  action  of  direct 
sunlight.  At  the  end  of  an  hour,  two  leaves  were  examined  and 
no  change  was  detected.  At  the  end  of  three  hours,  the  plant 
having  been  in  bright  sunlight  all  the  time,  six  leaves  were  ex- 
amined, those  being  selected  which  had  been  certainly  exposed 
to  the  light,  but  not  withered  by  it.  The  following  result  was 
obtained  :  In  five  leaves  out  of  the  six,  the  chlorophyll  bodies 
were  arranged  in  circular  lines  around  the  side-walls  of  the  cells, 
perpendicular  to  the  leaf  surface.  In  the  sixth  leaf,  the  same 
was  true  for  the  cells  near  the  apex,  while  in  those  near  the  base 
the  chlorophyll  bodies  were  arranged  in  planes  parallel  to  the 
surface.  Nothing  could  be  more  distinct  than  the  green  chloro- 
phyll bodies  seen  in  this  last  examination  ;  they  could  be  readily 
counted,  and  so  perfectly  and  uniformly  were  they  arranged 
around  the  side-walls  of  the  cells  that  in  many  cases  not  a  single 
one  stood  out  from  the  line. 

It  will  be  remembered  that  the  moss-leaves  already  exam- 
ined had  been  kept  in  darkness  for  some  time  previous  to  the  ex- 
periment. It  now  remains  to  notice  the  position  assumed  by  the 
chlorophyll  bodies  in  the  presence  of  diffused  light.  On  the 
same  day,  about  noon,  six  leaves  were  selected  from  a  part  of 
the  same  bunch  of  moss  that  had  been  kept  for  two  days  near  an 
easl  window,  and  which  had,  therefore,  been  exposed  most  of 
the  day  time  to  diffused  light.  The  results  were  nearly  identical 
with  those  obtained  in  the  examination  of  the  leaves  which  were 
kept  in  darkness,  though  in  one  leaf  the  chlorophyll  bodies  were 
throughout  arranged  about  the  side-walls. 

The  obvious  conclusion,  then,  must  be  that  the  chlorophyll 
bodies  when  deprived  of  the  strong  light  of  the  sun,  whether 
they  are  in  darkness  or  in  ordinary  diffused  light,  arrange  them- 


Appendix. 

selves  in  planes  parallel  to  the  surface  of  the  leaf,  thus  exposing 
as  much  of  their  surface  as  possible  to  the  action  of  light,  but 
when  exposed  to  the  action  of  direct  sunlight,  arrange  them- 
selves around  the  side-walls  of  the  cells,  thus  presenting  a  less 
amount  of  their  surface  to  the  intense  light. 

It  may  be  added  that  at  the  date  of  writing,  March  29th, 
over  three  weeks  after  the  observations  above  recorded  were 
made,  an  examination  was  made  of  the  leaves  of  the  same  moss, 
which  had  been  left  in  a  faintly  lighted  closet  since  the  former 
date,  without  care  of  any  kind.  All  the  leaves  examined  were 
found  to  have  their  chlorophyll  grains  arranged  in  planes  parallel 
to  the  leaf  surface,  thus  showing  that  after  removal  from  the  sun- 
light these  bodies  had  again  arranged  themselves  in  their  former 
position. 

If  .^  of  an  inch  be  taken  as  the  diameter  of  an  ordinary 
cell — and  this  is  a  rather  large  measurement  for  this  species — it 
will  be  seen  that  chlorophyll  bodies  pass  through  a  very  small 
space  in  performing  their  migrations  to  and  from  the  cell-walls. 
Supposing  one  of  the  chlorophyll  bodies  to  be  exactly  in  the  middle 
of  the  cell,  it  cannot  pass  through  more  than  r-Vo  of  an  inch  before 
reaching  the  cell-walls.  At  this  rate,  then,  about  a  year  will  be 
consumed  in  traveling  a  single  inch.  Still  it  is  pleasant  to  think 
that  the  mites  who  chance  to  be  born  in  a  moss-cell  have  travel- 
ing facilities  which,  though  a  trifle  slow,  are,  nevertheless,  safe 
and  regular. 


'- 


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